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Issued  September  12, 1911. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.— BULLETIN  141. 


A.  D.  MELVIN,  CHIEF  OP  BUREAU. 


E  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FARM  EGG. 


BY 


HARRY  M.  LAMON  AND  CHARLES  L.  OPPERMAN, 

Junior  Animal  Husbandmen,  Animal  Husbandry  Division. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1911. 


Issued  Hfptomber  12,  lull. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.— BULLETIN  141. 

A.  D.  MELVIN,  CHIEF  OF  BUREAU. 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FARM  EGG. 


BY 


HARRY  M.  LAMON  AND  CHARLES  L.  OPPERMAK 

Junior  Animal  Husbandmen,  Animal  Husbandry  Division. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1911. 


THE  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY. 


Chief:  A.  D.  MELVIN. 

Assistant  Chief:  A.  M.  FARRINGTON. 

Chief  Cleric:  CHARLES  C.  CARROLL. 

Animal  Husbandry  Division:  GEORGE  M.  ROMMEL,  chief. 

Biochemic  Division:  M.  DORSET,  chief. 

Dairy  Division:  B.  H.  RAWL,  chief. 

Inspection  Division:  RICE  P.   STEDDOM,  chief;  R.  A.   RAMSAY,  MORRIS  WOODEN, 

and  ALBERT  E.  BEHNKE,  associate  chiefs. 
Pathological  Division:  JOHN  R.  MOHLER,  chief. 
Quarantine  Division:  RICHARD  W.  HICKMAN,  chief. 
Zoological  Division:  B.  H.  RANSOM,  chief. 
Experiment  Station:  E.  C.  SCHROEDER,  superintendent. 
Editor:  JAMES  M.  PICKENS. 
2 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY, 

Washington.  D.  f .,  May  29.  1911. 

SIR:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  the  accompanying  manuscript 
entitled  "The  Improvement  of  the  Farm  Egg."  l>y  Harry  M.  Lamon 
and  Charles  L.  Opperman.  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  Division  of 
this  bureau,  and  to  recommend  its  publication  as  a  bulletin  in  the 
bureau  series.  In  1908  a  careful  survey  of  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  egg  trade  was  made  and  published  as  Circular  140,  u  The  Egg 
Trade  of  the  United  States,"  wherein  it  was  shown  there  was  a  very 
large  loss  in  our  annual  egg  output,  nearly  all  of  which  was  due  to 
improper  methods  of  handling  on  the  farm  and  at  the  country  store. 
A  conservative  estimate  of  this  loss  was  given  as  17  per  cent  of  the 
total  value,  amounting  to  about  $45,000.000  annually. 

Practically  all  of  this  loss  is  borne  by  the  farmers  and  other  egg 
producers,  and  a  large  part  of  it  should  be  easily  preventable.  In 
order  to  show  how  this  loss  might  be  prevented,  the  bureau  last  year 
sent  the  authors  of  the  present  bulletin  into  the  State  of  Kansas  to 
conduct  investigations  to  this  end.  The  results  of  the  first  season's 
work  are  described  herein. 

It  is  believed  that  Mr.  Lamon,  who  outlined  the  field  work,  has 
struck  the  keynote  in  the  solution  of  the  problem  by  bringing  about 
the  organization  of  the  egg  buyers,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  State 
authorities,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the  traders  in  eggs  to  buy 
on  a  quality  basis  only — in  other  words,  to  substitute  the  "  loss-off  " 
method  of  buying  for  the  prevailing  u  case-count  "  system.  Prob- 
ably the  best  evidence  that  the  work  of  the  bureau  in  this  matter 
had  been  well  directed  is  the  rapid  spread  of  the  movement  into 
other  States. 

The  authors  desire  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Alfred  1\. 
Lee,  of  the  Animal  Husbandry  Division,  who  was  in  the  field  at  the 
same  time.  They  also  wish  to  thank  the  egg  merchants,  railroad 
officials,  agricultural  college  officers,  and  the  State  board  of  health  of 
Kansas  for  valuable  cooperation. 

Respectfully.  A.  D.  MELVIN, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 

Hon.  JAMES  WILSON, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introduction !) 

Extent  of  the  industry 10 

Loss  due  to  poor  handling II 

Factors  influencing  quality  in  eggs \~2 

The  case-count  system  of  buying 12 

The  loss-off  system  of  buying 13 

The  country  store 11 

Delay  in  moving  eggs 15 

Classes  of  deteriorated  eggs 15 

Heated  eggs 15 

Held  or  shrunken  eggs 1  ti 

Rots 1  (i 

Dirty  eggs 1  (J 

Broken  eggs 17 

Other  deteriorated  eggs 17 

Methods  used  for  the  improvement  of  the  farm  egg 17 

Organization  of  buyers 17 

Cooperation  of  State  officials 1 !) 

Investigation  of  conditions  surrounding  the  egg  industry 1!) 

Conditions  on  the  farm 20 

The  poultry  stock 22 

Poultry  buildings 21 

Cleanliness  and  ventilation 21 

Feeding  methods 25 

Hatching  and  brooding 2fi 

Method  of  marking  poultry  to  determine  ago 27 

Insufficient  number  of  nests 2S 

Dirty  nests 2!) 

Irregularity  in  gathering  eggs 30 

Males  running  with  flock  after  hatching  season 30 

Inefficient  storing  facilities 30 

Washing  eggs 31 

Holding  eggs  until  a  quantity  has  accumulated 31 

Careless  methods  of  transportation  from  farm  to  village 32 

The  farmer's  market 32 

Present  features  of  store  dealing 32 

The  cash  buyer 31 

The  huckster 35 

The  cooperative  creamery 35 

Shipping  eggs  locally 35 

The  car-lot  shipper 3,H 

Educational  work 3!) 

Results  of  first  season's  work 10 

Extension  of  movement  to  ot her  States 11 

Summary 12 

Suggestions  for  the  farmer 12 

Suggestions  for  the  country  merchant  and  cash  buyer 13 

Suggestions  for  railroad  officials 13 

Suggestions  for  the  car-lot  shipper 13 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

PLATE  I.  A  farm  flock  of  Rhode  Island  Red  chickens 24 

II.  Fig.  1. — A  crudely  constructed  poultry  house.  Fig.  2. — A  well- 
constructed  poultry  house.  Fig.  3. — -An  inexpensive  practical 
farm  poultry  house 24 

III.  Fig.  1. — Tree  nests,  where  some  Kansas  hens  lay.     Fig.  2. — Gathering 

eggs  from  under  the  corn  crib. 32 

IV.  Fig.  1. — Taking  eggs  to  market.     Fig.  2. — A  shipment  of  eggs  on 

railroad  platform  awaiting  arrival  of  local  freight 32 

TEXT   FIGURES. 

FIG.  1. — Method  of  toe-marking  chicks  to  determine  age 27 

2. — A  stock  car  used  for  shipping  poultry  and  eggs 37 

6 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  THE  EGG  TRADE. 


Candling. — The  process  of  testing  eggs  by  passing  light  through  them  so  as 
to  reveal  the  condition  of  the  contents. 

Checks. — Eggs  which  are  cracked  but  not  leaking. 

Leakers. — Cracked  eggs  which  have  lost  a  part  of  their  contents. 

Dirties. — Eggs  soiled  with  earth,  droppings,  or  the  contents  of  broken  eggs. 

Blood  rings. — Eggs  in  which  blood  has  developed,  extending  to  the  period 
when  the  chick  becomes  visible. 

Floats,  light. — Eggs  in  which  embryo  development  has  proceeded  to  a  point 
corresponding  to  about  18  to  24  hours  of  normal  incubation  ;  they  are  not  readily 
detected  by  the  casual  observer,  even  when  broken. 

Floats,  heary. — Eggs  in  which  the  development  has  proceeded  further  than 
is  the  case  with  the  light  floats.  When  broken,  the  yolk  has  a  white  and 
scummy  appearance. 

Rots. — A  term  used  in  the  egg  trade  to  designate  eggs  absolutely  unfit  for 
food  purposes. 

Spots. — Eggs  in  which  bacteria  or  mold  growth  has  developed  locally  aud 
caused  the  formation  of  a  lumpy  adhesion  on  the  inside  of  the  shell. 

Watery  eggs. — Those  in  which  the  inner  membrane  of  the  air  cell  is  rup- 
tured, allowing  the  air  to  escape  into  the  contents  of  the  eggs,  and  giving  a 
watery  or  frothy  appearance. 

Weak  eggs. — Those  in  which  by  reason  of  unfavorable  conditions  or  of  age 
the  stiffness  or  viscosity  of  the  egg  white  is  lessened,  producing  an  egg  which 
does  not  stand  up  well  or  whip  into  a  firm  froth. 

Case  count. — A  term  used  in  egg  buying  where  eggs  are  accepted  simply  on 
the  basis  of  number  without  regard  to  quality. 

Los*  off. — A  term  used  in  egg  buying  where  eggs  are  tested  by  candling  before 
being  accepted.  The  bad  eggs,  usually  the  rots  and  broken  eggs,  are  rejected 
and  no  pay  is  received  for  them. 

Sceonds. — A  term  often  used  when  eggs  are  bought  on  a  graded  basis  to 
designate  usually  the  second-best  grade. 

Flats. — The  square  of  straw-board  which  is  placed  between  layers  of  eggs  in 
the  egg  case. 

7 


THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FARM  EGG. 


INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  an  accepted  fact  that  the  commercial  egg  of  this  country  is 
of  a  very  poor  quality,  and  when  the  housewife  purchases  eggs  of 
the  local  grocer  she  is  often  compelled  to  break  them  lirst  in  a  saucer 
before  using  them  for  culinary  purposes.  This  poor  quality  in  eggs 
has  been  attributed  by  the  majority  of  persons  to  the  retention  of  the 
eggs  in  cold  storage  until  a  large  per  cent  of  them  are  unfit  for 
human  consumption.  This  condition,  however,  is  not  as  a  rule  due 
to  cold  storage,  but  to  the  condition  of  the  eggs  when  they  go  into 
storage.  If  eggs  are  full  and  fresh  when  put  into  a  well-equipped 
and  properly  managed  cold-storage  house  there  is,  practically  speak- 
ing, no  change  in  quality  during  the  period  they  are  normally  held 
which  renders  them  unfit  for  food.  On  the  other  hand,  if  eggs  are 
heated,  shrunken,  watery,  or  otherwise  deteriorated  when  they  reach 
the  storage  house,  they  can  not  improve  in  quality  by  virtue  of  being 
held  at  a  low  temperature  and  are  quite  likely  to  deteriorate  to  a 
still  greater  extent.  In  other  words,  the  function  of  cold  storage 
in  the  case  of  eggs  is  to  retard  or  prevent  changes  which  are  unfavor- 
able to  good  quality. 

From  the  time  the  eggs  reach  the  poultry  packer  or  other  large 
fairer  of  eggs  they  are  as  a  rule  given  good  care.-and  the  deterioration 
from  this  point  until  they  go  into  cold  storage  or  reach  their  ultimate- 
market  is  comparatively  small.  While  there  is.  undoubtedly,  still 
room  for  improvement  during  this  period  of  the  egg's  journey  to 
market,  conditions  are  on  the  whole  too  satisfactory  to  account  for 
the  very  serious  deterioration  which  is  so  widespread  and  marked. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  go  further  back  in  the,  process  of 
marketing  and  to  study  the  conditions  surrounding  the  production 
and  handling  of  eggs  from  the  farm  to  the  packing  house,  if  a  really 
noticeable  and  substantial  improvement  is  to  lx>  eil'ected.  The 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  has  undertaken  to  grapple  with  this 
problem  and  a  report  of  the  preliminary  work  was  published  in 
1009,  as  Circular  140,  entitled,  "The  Egg  Trade  of  the  United 
States."  This  circular  gives  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  situation  in  all 
sections  of  the  country  and  forcibly  demonstrates  the  need  of  pro- 
curing more  detailed  information  on  this  subject. 
100717°--Riil].  141—11  — 


10  IMPROVEMENT    OF   THE   FARM   EGG. 

The  work  described  in  the  present  paper  deals  mainly  with  the 
situation  in  the  Middle  West  and  particularly  in  the  State  of  Kansas. 
The  objects  sought  to  be  attained  are,  to  improve  the  quality  of  com- 
mercial eggs  by  investigations  on  the  ground  to  determine  the  reasons 
for  the  poor  quality  of  eggs  so  frequently  seen,  to  devise  methods  for 
improving  the  present  conditions  economically  and  reduce  the  loss 
to  a  minimum,  and,  by  a  campaign  of  education,  to  disseminate  the 
results  of  the  investigation  in  other  sections  of  the  country  where 
similar  conditions  prevail  in  the  egg  trade.  The  loss  represented  by 
improper  handling  of  eggs  on  the  farm  and  in  the  country  store  is, 
in  the  main,  a  preventable  one.  It  is  borne  directly  both  by  the 
producer  and  the  consumer,  and  affects  the  consumer  also  by  curtail- 
ing the  egg  supply  of  the  country  as  well  as  by  lowering,  its  quality. 
By  preventing  this  loss  it  is  possible  for  the  farmer  to  realize  a 
greater  profit  and  for  the  consumer  to  be  more  certain  that  he  is 
purchasing  eggs  of  reasonably  good  quality. 

EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

There  is  probably  no  other  domestic  animal  which  has  a  more  gen- 
eral distribution  than  the  hen,  and  the  part  which  she  plays  in  the 
agricultural  wealth  of  this  country  is  almost  incredible.  According 
to  the  m.ost  recent 'statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
products  of  the  American  hen  aggregate  a  total  value  of  more  than 
$620,000,000  annually.  This  sum  is  stated  to  be  equal  to  the  value 
of  the  hay  crop  for  1908  and  greater  than  the  combined  value  of  oats 
and  potatoes  for  the  same  year.  It  is  nearly  nine  times  the  value  of 
the  tobacco  crop  and  equal  to  that  of  wheat. 

Poultry  and  eggs  are  produced  in  all  sections  of  the  country,  but 
the  business  finds  its  greatest  scope  in  areas  presenting  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  the  bulk  of  these  impor- 
tant products  is  produced  on  the  farms  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
In  this  section  there  are  practically  no  large  intensive  poultry  farms 
such  as  are  commonly  found  in  the  Eastern  States  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Poultry  keeping,  therefore,  is  largely  incidental,  the  hens  being 
considered  and  treated  largely  as  an  agency  for  converting  material 
which  would  otherwise  go  to  waste  into  a  salable  product.  Conse- 
quently the  poultry  and  eggs  produced  constitute  merely  a  by-product 
of  the  general  farm.  Because  prices  for  poultry  products  are  com- 
paratively low  the  farmers  make  no  effort  to  keep  larger  flocks  than 
can  be  supported  by  this  wraste  without  much  attention  or  extra  feed, 
and  because  individual  flocks  are  small  little  attention  or  thought  has 
been  given  to  improving  the  product  or  the  method  of  disposing  of 
it.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind,  however,  that  while  individual  sales 
of  poultry  products  are  small,  the  aggregate  for  the  year  is  large, 
reaching  for  each  State  in  the  Middle  West  a  total  of  many  millions 
of  dollars. 


RESULT   OF   POOR   HANDLING. 


11 


LOSS   DUE   TO   POOR  HANDLING. 

The  estimate  of  the  author  of  Circular  140  of  this  bureau  places 
the  annual  loss  for  the  entire  country  at  17  per  cent  of  the  total  value 
of  the  crop,  or  $45,000.000  annually.  A  vivid  idea  of  what  this  loss 
means  to  the  State  of  Kansas  alone  may  be  obtained  from  the  follow- 
in":  statement  contained  in  a  circular  letter  distributed  by  the  packers 
and  car-lot  shippers  of  that  State: 

It  is  the  belief  of  those  who  are  in  a  position  to  know  that  the  value  of  the 
egg  product  of  the  State  of  Kansas  would  be  increased  approximately  $1.000.000 
annually  if  proper  care  were  taken  of  the  product  by  the  farmer  and  merchant. 

More  accurate  figures  show  that  the  loss  varies  during  the  year 
from  5  to  25  per  cent,  depending  largely  on  the  time  of  year  and 
weather  conditions. 

The  following  table  gives  a  condensed  report  of  the  total  receipts 
of  three  Kansas  egg  buyers  during  the  months  of  July,  August,  and 
September,  1910,  showing  the  number  of  rots  thrown  out  as  the  result 
of  candling  as  well  as  the  number  of  seconds  and  checks  in  two 
instances : 

TABLE  1. — Showing  loss  in  eggs  received   by  three  Kansas   buyers   in  summer 

months  of  1010. 


Month. 

Local- 
ity. 

Total  re- 
ceipts. 

Firsts. 

Seconds. 

Chocks. 

Rots. 

July. 

A 
B 

C 
A 
B 
C 
A 
B 
C 

Dozens. 
223,  230 
100,899 
36,600 
100,320 
71,430 
46,500 

Dozens. 
207,  240 
60,044 
28,  970 
133,  620 
45,055 
31,151 

P.  ct. 
92.9 
60.2 
79.2 
83  5 

Dozens. 

p.  a. 

Dozens. 

r.  ct. 

Dozf  n  x. 
15,990 

7,  298 
2,4!H 
20,  7'X) 
5,  607 
4,374 

P.  c'. 
7.1 
7.2 
6.8 
lii.fi 
7.8 
9.4 

August 

27,  9(X) 
5,  13fi 

27.6 
14.0 

5,057 

5.0 

September  

63.1 
67.0 

17,265 
8.997 

24.1 
19.3 

3,503 
1,978 

4.9 
4.2 

Total  

42,710 
24,880 

29,659 
17,260 

69.5 
69.4 

8,460 
5,253 

19  8 
21.1 

2,083 
889 

4.8 
3.5 

2,  ,508 
1,478 

5.8 
5.9 

700.  £>9 

553,599 

78.3 

73,011 

10.3 

13,510 

1.9 

66.  449 

9.4 

It  will  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  above  table  that  the  total 
receipts  of  the  three  localities  were  70(5,509  dozen.  At  15  cents  a 
dozen,  which  is  about  the  average  price  for  "  firsts "  during  the 
months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  the  value  of  the  total  re- 
ceipts would  be  $105,985.35.  However,  152,970  do/en,  or  21.7  per 
cent,  of  these  eggs  did  not  pass  as  "  firsts."  Of  this  number  M(i.521 
dozen  were  classed  as  seconds  (which  includes  checks),  and  (>0,449 
dozen  were  "'  rots."  It  will  be  noticed  that  locality  A  does  not  dis- 
criminate against  seconds  and  checks.  This  condition  makes  the 
actual  loss  in  seconds  and  checks  less  than  it  would  be  under  the 
candling  system  of  localities  B  and  C\  The  per  cent  of  4'  firsts  "  is 
also  necessarily  greater.  When  buying  on  a  loss-off  basis  the  price 
paid  for  seconds  is  from  1  to  8  cents  per  dozen  less  than  the  price  of 
firsts.  At  G  cents  this  would  mean  a  loss  of  $5.191.26  in  localities  B 


12 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE  FARM   EGG. 


and  C.  The  66,449  dozen  "  rots  represent  a  loss  of  $9,967.35.  Thus 
there  is  from  eggs  thrown  out  and  from  those  depreciated  in  quality  a 
total  loss  of  $15,158.61,  or  14.3  per  cent  of  the  original  value,  and  this 
does  not  include  the  possible  losses  from  seconds  and  checks  in 
locality  A. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  weekly  receipts  of  still  another 
buyer,  shows  the  percentage  that  were  classed  as  "  firsts  "  during  the 
months  of  June  to  October,  1910,  inclusive. 

TABLE  2. — Percentage  of  eggs  classed  as  firsts  in  weekly  receipts  of  one  buyer. 


Week 
beginning  — 

Percentage 
of  firsts. 

Week 
beginning  — 

Percentage 
of  firsts. 

Week 
beginning  — 

Percentage 
of  firsts. 

Week 
beginning— 

Percentage 
of  firsts. 

June  4.. 

94.13 

July  16 

80.88 

Aug.  27.. 

83.68 

Oct.  8 

91  88 

June  11.. 

88.31 

July  23 

80.57 

Sept.  3  . 

83.11 

Oct.  15 

91.44 

June  18  
June  25.. 

86.43 
84.15 

July  30.     .. 
Aug.  6.. 

63.68 
66.53 

Sept.  10. 
Sept.  17 

88.64 
86.75 

Oct.  22  
Oct.  29 

94.24 
91  25 

July  2... 

80.00 

Aug.  13. 

87.75 

Sept.  24. 

86.82 

July  9 

85.82 

Aug.  20 

87.71 

Oct.  1 

91.66 

The  figures  given  above  are  based  on  an  average  weekly  business  of 
15,000  dozen  eggs.  The  decline  in  quality  with  the  increased  severity 
of  the  summer  heat  can  be  readily  traced.  This  decline  reached  its 
maximum  during  the  last  week  of  July  and  the  first  week  of  August, 
when  the  weather  was  unusually  warm.  After  this  time  the  number 
of  eggs  classed  as  "  firsts  "  rapidly  increased.  It  should  be  kept  in 
mind,  however,  that  in  classing  these  eggs  as  "  firsts,"  practically  all 
except  "  rots,"  spots,  blood  rings,  badly  heated  eggs,  and  broken  eggs 
were  included.  The  apparent  improvement  does  not,  therefore,  indi- 
cate that  there  had  been  any  improvement  in  shrunken  eggs  or  others 
less  badly  deteriorated. 

These  two  tables  show  a  serious  condition,  which,  moreover,  is  not 
limited  to  the  particular  cases  specified,  but  is  widespread  and  com- 
mon. Under  the  case-count  system  of  buying  the  producer  stands 
this  loss,  although,  as  will  be  explained  later,  he  does  not  realize  it. 
How  much  better  it  would  be  for  a  system  of  marketing  to  be  brought 
into  general  use  which  would  make  him  realize  this  loss  directty  and 
thereby  provide  an  incentive  to  market  his  eggs  in  a  more  careful  and 
rational  manner.  The  so-called  "  loss-off  "  is  such  a  system.  Needless 
to  say  a  strong  effort  is  being  made  by  this  bureau  to  encourage  the 
introduction  of  this  system. 

FACTORS   INFLUENCING   QUALITY   IN   EGGS. 
THE  CASE-COUNT  SYSTEM  Or  BUYING. 

Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  progress  and  the  improvement  of 
the  poultry  industry  of  the  Middle  West,  the  system  of  marketing  in 
general  use  in  this  great  producing  section  known  to  the  trade  as  the 


FACTORS   INFLUENCING   QUALITY.  13 

"case-count"  system  has  proven  u  great  stumbling  block.  It  is  a 
system  of  payment  for  number  alone  regardless  of  quality,  and  in 
consequence  it  has  not  only  not  provided  an  incentive  for  care  and 
attention  to  quality,  but  by  neglecting  to  reward  carefulness  has  even 
encouraged  careless  and  dilatory  marketing  on  the  part  of  fanners, 
with  the  attendant  loss  in  quality.  Briefly,  case-count  buying  con- 
sists of  the  payment  of  the  fixed  price  which  happens  to  be  current 
at  the  time  for  each  and  every  dozen  eggs  which  may  be  offered  for 
sale,  regardless  of  whether  the  eggs  themselves  are  good,  bad.  or 
indifferent.  The  only  requisite  in  most  cases  to  consummate  a  sale 
is  for  each  egg  to  have  an  intact  shell.  The  case-count  system  of 
buying  eggs  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  the  greatest  factor  in  pre- 
venting an  improvement  in  the  general  quality  of  commercial  eggs. 
No  more  practical  step  can  be  taken,  or  one  which  would  have  a 
more  immediate  and  far-reaching  effect  in  improving  the  quality  of 
the  eggs  of  the  Middle  West,  than  to  discard  this  system  of  buying 
and  to  replace  it  by  the  one  known  to  the  trade  as  '*  loss-off,"  in  other 
words,  to  buy  on  a  candled  or  quality  basis. 

THE   I/)SS-OFF   SYSTEM   OF   BUYING. 

Where  this  system  is  in  use  the  eggs  as  bought  are  "  candled," 
that  is,  subjected  to  a  test  which  shows  quite  definitely  their  con- 
dition and  quality.  Candling  is  performed  by  holding  the  eggs  up 
to  a  small  hole,  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar,  cut  in  a  shield  of 
metal  or  other  material,  behind  which  is  a  strong  light.  Usually 
this  light  is  furnished  by  an  ordinary  16-candle  power  incandescent 
light,  but  a  lamp,  candle,  or  even  the  sunlight  may  be  utilized.  The 
person  candling  the  eggs  is  in  a  dark  or  semidark  room,  so  that  the 
light  shines  through  the  eggs,  and  when  the  latter  are  twirled  the 
condition  of  the  contents  is  at  once  revealed  to  an  expert  eye.  By  this 
test  it  is  possible  to  detect  rots,  spots,  and  other  deteriorated  eggs, 
such  as  shrunken,  weak,  watery,  and  heated  eggs.  In  paying  for 
eggs  bought  on  this  basis,  the  rots  and  usually  the  spots  and  blood 
rings  are  thrown  out  entirely,  so  that  they  become  a  dead  loss  to  the 
person  responsible  for  them.  Often  in  buying  from  the  farmer  no 
other  distinction  is  made.  The  eggs  are  simply  divided  into  two 
classes,  one  of  which  is  good  enough  to  accept  and  pay  for  while  the 
other  is  rejected  and  payment  therefor  is  refused.  Such  a  classification 
is  a  distinct  step  forward  and  results  in  a  great  improvement  in  the 
eggs.  Indeed,  there  are  many  reasons  to  believe  that  such  a  simple 
system  is  preferable  when  dealing  with  the  farmers  to  a  more  com- 
plicated one  where  the  eggs  are  placed  in  several  grades,  according 
to  quality,  and  for  which  different  prices  are  paid.  In  the  latter 
case  the  farmer  is  prone  to  think  that  he  is  being  cheated  if  a  part 
of  his  eggs  are  accepted  but' bring  a  les's  price  than  the  others. 


14  IMPROVEMENT  OF   THE   FARM   EGG. 

The  agency  indirectly  responsible  for  the  opposition  to  this  method 
of  buying  and  for  the  continuance  of  the  case-count  system  is  the 
country  store. 

THE  COUNTRY  STORE. 

It  has  been  the  custom  from  the  time  towns  were  settled  through- 
out the  West  for  the  country  store  to  handle  the  eggs  in  most  in- 
stances. 

The  peculiar  workings  of  this  system,  together  with  its  baleful 
effects,  have  been  well  discussed  by  Milo  M.  Hastings  in  Circular  140 
of  this  bureau.  He  says : 

The  trips  to  the  general  store,  necessary  to  supply  the  household  needs,  offer 
the  most  convenient  opportunity  for  this  marketing;  but  there  is  a  reason  for 
the  general  merchant  being  an  egg  buyer  that  is  more  interesting  and  far- 
reaching  in  its  effect  upon  the  egg  trade.  The  merchant  buys  eggs  because 
by  doing  so  he  can  control  his  selling  trade.  There  are  two  reasons  why  the 
farmer  trades  where  he  sells  his  eggs:  (1)  Because  it  is  convenient  to  trade 
at  one  place,  and  (2)  because  he  wishes  to  avoid  offending  the  merchant,  which 
he  would  do  if  he  broke  the  established  custom  of  trading  out  the  amount. 

The  merchant  knows  that  to  buy  eggs  means  to  sell  goods,  and  he  therefore 
bids  for  eggs.  His  competitors  in  the  same  town,  as  well  as  in  other  towns, 
also  bid  for  eggs.  The  effect  to  the  merchant  of  lowering  the  price  of  his  goods 
or  raising  the  price  of  eggs  is  financially  the  same.  In  either  case  it  is  the 
matter  of  cutting  prices  under  the  spur  of  competition.  Now,  the  articles  on 
which  the  merchant  makes  his  chief  profits  are  dry  goods  and  notions.  Such 
articles  are  not  standardized,  but  their  real  value  varies  in  a  manner  quite  im- 
possible of  estimation  by  the  unsophisticated.  On  the  other  hand,  eggs  are 
quoted  by  the  dozen,  and  all  who  run  may  read. 

Suppose,  for  illustration,  two  merchants  in  the  same  town  are  each  doing 
business  with  a  20  per  cent  profit  and  are  buying  eggs  at  10  cents  and  selling 
for  11,  the  1  cent  advance  being  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  labor  of  handling,  in- 
cidental loss,  and  a  small  profit.  One  merchant  concludes  to  cater  for  more 
trade.  If  he  marks  his  goods  down  he  will  gain  some  extra  trade,  but  people 
will  fear  his  goods  are  cheap.  But  let  him  put  out  a  placard  "  Eleven  cents  paid 
for  eggs,"  and  the  farmers  will  throng  his  store  and  be  less  inclined  to  question 
the  quality  of  his  goods.  This  move  having  been  successful,  his  rival  across 
the  street  quietly  stocks  up  with  a  cheaper  line  of  dry  goods,  and  one  fine 
morning  puts  out  a  card,  "  Twelve  cents  paid  for  eggs,"  and  more  farm  wagons 
will  be  hitched  on  his  side  of  the  street.  The  volume  of  business  at  the  lower 
profit  being  insufficient  to  maintain  two  men  in  the  town,  a  mutual  understand- 
ing is  gradually  brought  about  by  which  the  prices  of  goods  sold  are  worked 
back  to  the  basis  of  20  per  cent  gross  profit,  but  the  false  price  of  eggs  serves 
to  draw  trade  from  neighboring  towns,  and  is  maintained  at  the  higher 
level. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  price  paid  to  farmers  for  eggs  by  the  general  stores 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  is  frequently  1  to  2  cents  above  the  price  at  which  the 
storekeeper  sells  the  product.  Allowing  the  cost  of  handling,  we  have  a  con- 
dition prevailing  in  which  the  merchant  is  handling  eggs  at  from  5  to  10  per 
cent  loss,  and  it  stands  to  reason  that  he  is  making  up  the  loss  by  adding  to 
the  prices  of  his  goods. 


CLASSES  OF  DETERIORATED  EGGS.  15 

Some  of  the  effects  of  this  system  aro: 

1.  The  inflated  price  of  merchandise  is  an  injustice  to  the  townspeople  and  to 
farmers  not  selling  produce;  in  fact,  it  amounts  to  a  taxation  of  these  people 
for  the  benefit  of  the  egg  producers. 

2.  The  inflated  prices  of  the  merchant's  wares  work  to  his  own  disadvantage 
in  competition  with  mail-order  or  out-of-town  trade. 

I!.  The  farmer  who  exchanges  eggs  for  dry  goods  is  not  being  paid  more  for 
his  eggs,  save  as  the  tax  on  the  townspeople  contributes  a  little  to  that  end.  but 
is  in  the  main  merely  exchanging  more  dollars. 

4.  The  use  of  eggs  as  a  drawing  card  for  trade  works  in  favor  of  inferior 
produce,  and  the  loss  to  the  farmer  through  the  lowering  of  prices  thus  caused 
is  much  greater  than  his  gain  through  the  forced  contributions  of  his  neighbors. 

DKLAY   IN    MOVING   ECCS. 

The  delay  which  takes  place  from  the  time  tho  eggs  aro  produced 
on  the  farm  until  they  reach  tho  packing  house  or  car-lot  shipper  is  a 
direct  result  of  the  case-count  system  of  buying.  This  delay  is  most 
serious,  and,  coupled  with  weather  conditions,  it  is  responsible  for 
the  changes  occurring  and  the  loss  and  deterioration  caused.  Inci- 
dental to  the  delay  and  the  ignoring  of  the  necessity  for  good  quality, 
many  careless  habits  develop  in  handling  the  eggs.  On  the  farm 
this  usually  takes  the  form  of  negligence  in  gathering  the  eggs,  also  in 
storing  them  in  hot,  damp,  or  other  unsuitable  places,  and  in  holding 
them  for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  either  because  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  go  to  town  or,  in  the  fall  on  a  rising  market,  with  the  idea 
of  getting  a  better  price.  At  the  country  store,  also,  the  eggs  aro 
often  held  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  When  the  eggs  finally 
reach  the  packer  they  may,  therefore,  be  several  weeks  old.  and  as 
they  are  subjected  to  high  temperature  during  the  summer  and  early 
fall  months,  and  may  have  been  held  in  damp  places,  changes  often 
take  place  which  bring  them  under  one  or  other  of  the  following  well- 
recognized  classes. 

CLASSES  OF  DETERIORATED  EGGS. 
IIKATED    E(1(JS. 

Heated  eggs  occur  most  commonly,  of  course,  during  the  summer 
months.  They  are  caused  by  the  development  of  the  embryo  in  fer- 
tile eggs.  AVhenever  a  fertile  egg  is  subjected  to  proper  conditions  of 
heat  and  moisture,  whether  it  be  under  a  hen.  in  a  bucket  behind  tho 
kitchen  range,  or  in  an  egg  case  in  (he  hot  *un  on  tho  railroad  s(a(ion 
platform,  the  embryo  development  proceeds.  The  degree  to  which 
this  development  has  progressed  will  determine  into  which  of  the 
classes  or  grades  recognized  by  practical  egg  men  it  will  fall. 
"  Light  floats"  are  those  in  which  there  is  only  a  slight  development, 
approximately  equal  to  that  reached  at  the  end  of  18  or  -24  hours  of 


1(5  IMPROVEMENT   OP   THE   FARM   EGG. 

natural  incubation.  Usually  this  development  would  go  unnoticed 
when  the  egg  is  broken.  "  Heavy  floats  "  show  a  greater  develop- 
ment, usually  sufficient  to  be  noticed  on  breaking.  "Blood  rings" 
are  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  a  ring  of  blood  next  to  the  shell 
membrane.  In  these  eggs  the  developing  embryo  has  died,  and  the 
peripheral  blood  vessel  has  adhered  to  the  membrane  and  is  plainly 
visible  before  the  candle.  In  other  cases  the  development  proceeds 
until  the  growing  chick  is  visible  before  the  candle.  Many  of  the 
eggs  that  contain  well-developed  chicks  are  classed  as  rots.  In  ex- 
ceptional cases  the  development  may  proceed  until  the  egg  actually 
hatches  in  the  egg  case  or  wherever  else  it  may  be. 

HELD   OR    SHRUNKEN    EGGS. 

The  contents  of  a  fresh-laid  egg  completely  fill  it,  but  as  the  egg 
cools  the  contents  shrink  slightly,  causing  a  small  bubble  or  air  cell 
to  appear  at  the  large  end.  As  the  egg  grows  older  the  water  is  con- 
tinually evaporating  from  the  white  through  the  shell  membrane  and 
the  shell,  and  this  causes  the  air  cell  in  the  large  end  of  the  egg  to 
increase  in  size.  Such  an  egg  is  characterized  as  held,  or  shrunken. 
The  rapidity  with  which  this  evaporation  and  shrinking  progresses 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  humidity  of  the  air  surrounding  the  egg. 
Shrunken  eggs  are  most  common  during  the  fall  and  early  winter, 
when  the  price  of  eggs  is  rising.  At  this  time  both  the  farmer  and 
the  storekeeper  are  often  guilty  of  holding  eggs  in  the  hope  that  the 
price  will  have  advanced  by  the  time  they  are  ready  to  sell.  Needless 
to  say,  they  largely  defeat  themselves,  for  buyers  have  learned  to 
anticipate  this  condition,  and  consequently  depress  the  price  below 
what  it  would  othenvise  be. 

ROTS. 

A  number  of  different  kinds  of  rots  are  recognized  by  the  trade,  but 
the  two  most  common  classes  are  those  known  as  black  or  mixed  rots 
and  as  spot  rots  or  spots.  The  black  rot  is  often  caused  by  bacterial 
growth.  These  eggs  appear  dark  or  black  before  the  candle  and  are 
characterized  on  breaking  by  a  most  offensive  odor.  In  the  case  of 
spot  rots,  the  bacterial  growth  has  remained  localized  and  shows  as 
a  spot  or  patch  next  the  shell  and  usually  attached  to  it.  These  are 
easily  detected  on  candling.  Spots  are  also  often  caused  by  the  de- 
velopment of  molds. 

DIRTY  EGGS. 

Many  eggs  are  soiled  and  dirty.  These  are  caused  by  dirty  nests, 
thus  allowing  the  eggs  to  be  soiled  by  droppings,  by  dirt  from  the  feet 
of  the  fowls,  particularly  during  rainy  weather,  and  by  smearing  with 
the  contents  of  broken  or  cracked  eggs. 


DETAILS   OF    PLAN    FOR    IMPROVEMENT.  17 

BROKEN   EGGS. 

Many  eggs  are  cracked  or  broken  before  reaching  the  packing  house. 
Those  cracked  only  slightly,  so  that  the  egg  contents  do  not  leak  out, 
are  known  as  ''checks."  Those  in  which  the  egg  contents  are  leaking 
or  have  partial!}7  leaked  away  are  known  as  "leakers."  Broken  or 
"checked"  eggs  depreciate  rapidly  and  must,  therefore,  be  separated 
out  and  sold  for  immediate  consumption  at  a  reduced  price  or  they 
must  be  dried  or  broken  out  in  cans  and  frozen. 

OTHER  DETERIORATED  EGGS. 

As  eggs  are  very  prone  to  take  on  the  taste  and  odor  of  their  sur- 
roundings, a  considerable  number  deteriorate  in  this  respect.  Tf 
stored  in  damp  cellars,  they  are  likely  to  develop  a  musty  flavor  which 
is  practically  impossible  to  detect  without  tasting.  Other  flavors 
caused  by  storing  with  vegetables,  such  as  onions,  are  common. 

METHODS  USED  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  FARM  EGG. 

In  attacking  this  problem  the  bureau  concentrated  its  efforts  upon 
those  measures  which  were  considered  the  most  important  and  gave 
promise  of  accomplishing  the  most  good.  The  two  main  lines  were : 
First,  the  encouragement  of  the  loss-off  system  of  buying,  and  second, 
a  close  and  careful  examination  of  the  conditions  surrounding  the 
marketing  of  eggs  all  the  way  from  the  producer  to  the  packing  house. 
The  State  of  Kansas  was  selected  as  a  working  base  for  three  reasons: 
First,  the  output  of  eggs  is  enormous,  but  the  quality  has  usually  been 
low.  Second,  the.  buyers  of  the  State  had  already  made  at  least  one 
attempt  to  enforce  the  loss-off  system  of  buying,  which  indicated  a 
receptive  spirit  on  their  part.  Third,  the  statutes  of  Kansas  contain 
provisions  giving  the  State  board  of  health  abundant  authority  to 
prevent  the  sale  of  bad  eggs  within  the  State. 

The  first  attempt,  above  alluded  to,  of  enforcing  the  loss-off  system 
of  buying  failed  because  the  buyers  along  the  borders  of  the  State  met 
competition  from  adjacent  States  where  the  case-count  system  was  in 
operation  and.  becoming  discouraged,  in  self-defense  resorted  again 
to  the  case-count  system.  The  other  buyers  of  the  State  in  turn  felt 
compelled  to  return  to  the  case-count  basis,  and  the  entire  agreement 
soon  fell  to  pieces. 

ORGANIZATION    OF    BUYERS. 

The  first  step,  therefore,  was  to  get  the  buyers  together.  With 
the  cooperation  of  officers  of  the  State  board  of  health  and  the  Kan- 
sas State  Agricultural  College,  a  meeting  of  the  Kansas  Carlot 
Egg  Shippers'  Association  was  held  at  Topeka  on  June  10.  1910. 

100717°— Bull.  141—11 3 


18  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    FARM    EGG. 

where  an  agreement  was  entered  into  to  buy  strictly  on  a  loss-off 
basis  after  July  1,  1910. 

The  proceedings  of  the  meeting  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the 
following  resolutions : 

First.  That  Dr.  Crumbine  have  cards  and  circulars  printed  and  mailed  to 
every  merchant  that  handles  eggs  in  the  State  of  Kansas,  the  association  bear- 
ing the  expense. 

Second.  That  buyers  send  out  circulars  to  their  patrons,  through  their  offices, 
relative  to  their  attitude  on  the  marketing  of  eggs. 

Third.  The  term  designating  loss-off  includes  all  rots,  spots,  blood  rings,  and 
leakers. 

Fourth.  That  Dr.  Crumbine  and  G.  C.  Bowman  shall  draft  and  have  printed 
circulars  to  be  sent  to  shippers  for  distributing  to  their  patrons. 

Fifth.  That  buying  on  a  loss-off  basis  shall  commence  July  1,  1910. 

Sixth.  That  the  members  of  the  association  shall  sign  the  following  agree- 
ment : 

"  We  the  undersigned  egg  shippers,  hereby  agree  that  from  and  after  July  1, 
1910,  we  will  buy  all  eggs  loss-off,  said  loss-off  to  include  all  rots,  spots,  blood 
rings,  and  leakers."  . 

The  following  circular  was  drafted  and  mailed  by  members  of  the 
association  to  the  dealers  throughout  the  State  from  whom  they  drew 
their  supplies. 

TO   OUR    PATRONS. 

The  prices  current  on  Kansas  eggs  on  the  eastern  market  indicate  that  the 
Kansas  egg  has  a  "  bad  name."  This  deplorable  condition  is  the  natural  and 
inevitable  result  of  buying  and  shipping  eggs  by  the  "  case-count "  system,  or, 
as  one  man  graphically  expressed  the  situation,. "  everything  with  a  shell  goes 
in  Kansas."  This  lowered  price  of  the  Kansas  product  means  a  great  loss  to 
the  producers  and  buyers  of  a  wholesome  article,  which  can  never  be  remedied 
until  the  egg  unfit  for  food  is  eliminated  from  the  channels  of  trade.  It  is  the 
belief  of  those  who  are  in  a  position  to  know  that  the  value  of  the  egg  product 
of  Kansas  would  be  increased  approximately  $1,000,000  annually  if  proper  care 
is  taken  of  the  product  by  the  farmer  and  merchant. 

An  egg  that  will  grade  a  first  or  extra  when  delivered  by  the  farmer  will 
rapidly  deteriorate  into  a  second  or  even  a  third  if  held  for  only  a  short  time 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  Therefore,  the  farmer  should  gather  his  eggs  at 
least  twice  a  day,  put  them  in  a  cool  place,  and  deliver  them  to  the  merchant 
at  least  every  second  day,  and  the  merchant  in  turn  ship  daily  during  the  hot 
season. 

We  desire  also  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Government  has 
shown  considerable  activity  of  late  in  the  seizure  of  the  eggs  entering  into 
interstate  commerce  which  have  not  complied  with  the  national  food  and  drug 
law  in  that  there  were  many  of  them  unfit  for  food. 

The  State  authorities,  cooperating  with  the  Federal  Government,  are  insisting 
that  the  sale  of  eggs  unfit  for  food  shall  cease.  There  is  only  one  method  of 
bringing  about  the  results  above  indicated ;  namely,  that  of  buying  "  loss  off." 
By  putting  into  action  the  above  suggestions,  in  handling  and  carefully  candling, 
it  has  been  agreed  that  beginning  July  1,  1910,  all  eggs  shall  be  purchased  on 
the  "  loss-off  "  basis. 

f  We  want  every  merchant  to  cooperate  with  us  by  candling  all  eggs  and  ship 
them  daily,  and  further,  instruct  the  producers  to  gather  eggs  at  least  twice  a 
day,  put  them  in  a  cool  place,  and  market  them  every  other  day. 


CONDITIONS   SURROUNDING   EGG   INDUSTRY. 


19 


COOPERATION    OF    STATE    OFFICIALS. 

Profiting  by  the  failure  of  the  former  attempt  to  bring  about  the 
loss-off  system  of  buying,  the  support  of  the  State  board  of  health 
was  early  enlisted  in  the  cause.  This  was  an  important  step,  with- 
out which  the  movement  would  have  met  the  same  fate  as  its  prede- 
cessors, for  the  activity  of  the  State  board  of  health  served  to  keep 
wavering  buyers  in  line  through  fear  of  prosecution  for  handling 
bad  eggs.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  state  that  the  secretary  of  the  board, 
Dr.  S.  J.  Cmmbine,  was  most  active  in  supporting  the  movement 
and  lent  the  force  of  his  department  to  its  successful  operation. 
Placards  (as  below)  were  printed  and  posted  in  about  3,000  stores 
throughout  the  State  where  eggs  were  bought  or  sold. 


WARN  IXC,— BAD  EGGS. 


The  Kansas  food  and  drugs  law  forbids  the  sale  or  offering  for 
sale  of  eggs  unfit  for  human  food.  "Sec.  7,  Subdivision  sixth: 
If  it  consists  in  whole  or  in  pan  of  a  filthy,  decomposed,  tainted, 
or  putrid  animal  or  vegetable  substance,"  etc. 

Keg.  1 1 ,  Par.  C:  "The  sale,  keeping  for  sale,  or  offering  for  sale 
of  tainted  or  rotten  eggs  is  prohibited." 

Inspectors  of  this  department,  and  all  police  officers  of  the  State,  arc 
instructed  to  enforce  these  provisions  of  the  law. 

KANSAS  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 
By  the  Chief  Food  and  Drug  Inspector. 
TOPEKA,  KANSAS,  June  11, 1910. 


INVESTIGATION     OF     CONDITIONS     SURROUNDING     THE     EGG 

INDUSTRY. 

After  the  above  buying  agreement  had  been  accomplished,  and  the 
assistance  of  the  State  authorities  assured,  the  efforts  of  the  bureau 
were  at  once  directed  to  a  comprehensive  study  of  the  conditions  in 
the  field  and  a  campaign  of  education  was  immediately  begun  among 
the  Kansas  farmers.  The  following  account  of  the  methods  used  in 
making  this  study  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  similar  work  which  may  be 
undertaken  in  other  States. 

As  the  first  step,  a  packing  house  was  selected  whoso  manager  was 
in  sympathy  with  and  believed  in  the  practical  good  to  be  accom- 
plished by  such  a  study.  The  association  with  such  a  packing  house 
made  it  possible  to  investigate  shipments  of  eggs,  whenever  de>ired, 
from  their  origin  on  the  farm,  and  to  observe  the  changes  which 
might  occur.  By  virtue  of  enjoying  the  confidence  and  friendship 
of  the  manager,  it  was  also  possible  to  get  into  touch  with  some  of 
the  smaller  buyers  and  stores  shipping  eggs  to  him.  Through  these 
buyers  and  storekeepers  it  was  again  possible  to  make  the  acquaint- 
ance and  secure  the  confidence  of  the  farmers  furnishing  them  with 
eggs.  Thus  a  complete  chain  was  established  from  the  farm  to  the 


20  IMPROVEMENT   OF    THE   FARM   EGG. 

packing  house,  all  parts  of  which  had  a  direct  interest  in  the  egg  busi- 
ness, and  all  of  which  \vere  willing  to  give  the  bureau  any  help  pos- 
sible. The  conditions  found  as  a  result  of  these  studies  are  given  in 

o 

the  following  section. 

CONDITIONS  ON  THE  FARM. 

The  writers  made  personal  visits  to  more  than  100  farms  during 
the  summer  of  1910,  driving  more  than  1,000  miles  over  the  country 
roads.  Detailed  records  are  available  for  92  of  these  farms.  In 
assembling  the  information  secured  the  card  shown  below  was  used. 

[Front  of  card.] 

[UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.] 
POULTRY    AND    EGG    MARKETING    INVESTIGATIONS. 

FARMER'S   CARD. 

No. 

Name 

Address 

Date 

Character  of  farm  : 

Size 

Crops  raised 

Stock   kept 

Poultry  accommodations  : 
Houses — 

Kind 

Number 

Location . 

Nests — 

Kind 

Number 

Location 

Runs — 

Size 

Number 

Treatment 

Poultry  kept : 

Variety 

Number — 

Males 

Females 

Ages 

Natural  or  artificial   incubation 

Natural  or  artificial  brooding . 

Egg  production  : 

Weight  of  eggs  per  dozen 

Method  of  feeding • 

Rations 

Gathering  eggs : 

Frequency 

By  whom . 

In    what 

Keeping  eggs  for  market : 

Where 

How   long 

Temperature 

How    marketed 

Distance  from  market 

Name  and  address  of  person  or  firm  to  whom  sold 


POULTRY   SCORE   CARD. 

[Back  of  card.] 
SCORE  CARD  OF  FAKM  POULTRY  Fr.orK. 


21 


Equipment. 

Score. 

Methods. 

Score. 

Perfect. 

Allowed. 

Perfect  . 

Allowed. 

POULTRY  STOCK. 

Health                                 

10 
10 

FEEDING. 
Water:  Clean.  fresh.  abundant  .  . 

:;    . 

Variety  of  feed              "> 

Green  feed        

., 

Age                       

3 

In   winter  and  at  other 
limes  when  not  available. 
Meat  feed,  wholesome  

;i 

All  in  first  or  not  over  half 
in  second  laying  year  neces- 
sary for  perfect  score. 

HOUSES. 

7 
5 

3 

3 
3 

1 
1 

5 

3 

4 
2 

Grit              

1 
1 
1 
1 

3 
4 

3 

4 
3 

Shell 

Fresh  feed,  not  sloppy  or  sour.  .  . 

HANDLING   EGGS. 

Gathering:  Once  daily,  twice  in 
hot  weather       

Well  drained            5 

Southern  or  southeastern 

Tight    back    wall,    ends, 
and  roof      1 

Keeping  eggs  

Cool,  50°  to  70  •'  F  1 
Dry,  to  prevent  mold.  ...  1 
Free  from  contamination 
of  taste  or  odor  1 

I)rv  floor      2 

Kcononiv      1 

Location    and    shape    of 
windows                1 

Clean  surroundings  1 

Light 

One  square  foot  of  glass  to 
10-10  floor  space  or  1  square 
foot  of  glass,  and  1  square 
foot  of  cloth  to  2j  feet  floor 
space. 

Daily      3 

Spmiweeklv  ...            2 

Weekly         1 

Less  often  0 

Grading  out  odd-sized,  dirty, 
washed,  cracked,  and  doubt- 
ful eggs  for  home  use. 

Open    front     or    curtain 
front              3 

Vdjustable  windows    ...     2 

Separation   of  males  from   fe- 
males during  warm  weather 
after  breeding  season  . 

Floor  space      

4.  5  too  square  feet  per  hen.  3 
3.5  to  4.5  square  feet  per 
hen                            2 

Total... 

2.5  to  3.5  square  feet  per 
hen  1 

Less  than  2.5  square  feet 
per  hen    0 

Convenience  

Nests  

1  to  5  hens. 
Cleanliness                

Frequent  removal  of  drop- 
pings                                  2 

Nests                                 .     2 

Walls  windows,  etc  1 

RUNS  OR  RANGE. 

100  to  200  square  feet  3 
50  to  100  square  feet               2 

Less  than  50  square  feet..  .  1 
No  run  0 

Cultivation 

Drainage  

Shade  

1 

Total... 

66 

:<) 

Equipment-.  Methods .Final  Score. 

This  card  was  found  to  be  a  most  convenient  method  of  tabulating 
and  preserving  the  data  secured  from  individual  farms.  The  score 
card  on  the  back  served  to  make  comparison  easy  by  placing  a 
numerical  value  on  the  poultry  equipment  and  methods. 

Before  entering  into  the  discussion  relating  to  the  poultry  condi- 
tions on  the  farm,  it  might  IK>  well  to  give  a  brief  description  of  the 
100717°— Hull.  1-41— 11 i 


22 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE   FARM    EGG. 


size  and  general  character  of  the  farms  which  were  visited.  As  to 
size,  there  are  in  Kansas  the  smaller  farms  containing  from  60  to 
300  acres  and  also  those  which  are  several  thousand  acres  in  extent, 
the  latter  being  used  for  the  most  part  as  pasture  and  grain  land, 
while  on  the  former  diversified  farming  is  the  usual  practice.  The 
principal  crops  raised  are  corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  kafir  corn,  millet, 
sorghum,  potatoes,  and  hay.  The  term  "  hay  "  would  include  many 
varieties  of  cultivated  grasses  and  legumes,  and  of  these  alfalfa  is 
by  far  the  most  important  crop.  The  classes  of  live  stock  which  are 
raised  extensively  are  horses,  beef  cattle,  milch  cows,  sheep,  and  hogs, 
beef  cattle  and  hogs  being  in  the  majority.  The  large  farms,  or 
ranges,  do  not  as  a  rule  have  any  great  number  of  poultry  on  them, 
and  consequently  play  a  small  part  in  the  present  discussion.  From 
this  general  description  it  is  easy  to  understand  why  poultry  forms 
an  important  part  in  the  agricultural  wealth  of  this  section  of  the 
country,  since  grain  and  other  desirable  feed,  including  alfalfa,  are 
abundantly  and  economically  raised,  and  the  soil  and  climatic  condi- 
tions are  well  suited  to  the  production  of  poultry.  The  details  of 
the  92  farms  previously  referred  to  in  regard  to  acreage  and  size 
of  flocks  are  as  follows : 

TABLE  3. — Relation  of  size  of  farm   to  number   of  It  ens  kept,   based  upon  92 

Kansas  farms. 


Size  of  farm. 

Number. 

Total 
acreage. 

Average 
acreage. 

Total 
number 
of  hens. 

Average 
number 
of  hens. 

Hens  per 
acre. 

80  acres  or  less   . 

18 

1,440' 

80.0 

1,998 

111.0 

1.39 

81  to  160  acres. 

45 

6,514 

144.7 

5,401 

120.0 

.83 

161  to  240  acres 

18 

3,828 

212.7 

2,190 

121.7 

.57 

Over  240  acres  .  . 

11 

3,805 

345.9 

1,680 

152.7 

.44 

Total   . 

92 

15,587 

169.4 

11,269 

122.5 

.72 

THE   POULTRY    STOCK. 


The  value  of  purebred  poultry  has  not  been  realized  to  as  great 
an  extent  by  the  farmers  of  Kansas  as  it  should  be.  The  bulk  of  the 
poultry  on  the  farms  are  what  are  commonly  known  as  mongrel  or 
dunghill  fowls.  When  any  breeding  is  apparent  Barred  Plymouth 
Rock  and  Leghorn  characteristics  predominate.  A  small  proportion 
of  the  farmers,  however,  do  keep  some  purebred  poultry.  In  Plate  I 
is  shown  a  view  of  a  good  farm  flock  of  Rose  Comb  Rhode  Island 
Reds.  The  breed  most  popular  among  farmers  is  the  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock. 

Improvement  is  usually  sought  by  bringing  in  fresh  blood  every 
two  or  three  years  in  the  form  of  a  new  male  bird,  generally  of  a 
different  breed  each  time.  About  the  only  visible  effect  of  this  spas- 
modic scheme  is  to  add  yet  greater  dissimilarity  to  the  already  won- 


POULTRY    STOCK    IX    KANSAS. 


23 


derfully  variegated  flock.  If  the  farmer  would  carefully  select  10 
or  12  of  his  best  females  each  year  and  mate  them  \vith  a  purebred 
male  which  conformed  to  the  general  character  of  the  females,  ad- 
hering always  to  the  same  breed,  he  ct.uld  in  the  course  of  a  few  years 
make  a  marked  improvement  in  his  flock. 

The  introduction  of  Leghorn  blood  (and  many  farm  flocks  show 
some  trace  of  Leghorn  blood)  has  had  a  marked  tendency  to  decrease 
the  size  of  the  average  farm  fowl  in  Kansas  This  p:>int  was  forci- 
bly demonstrated  to  the  authors  by  observing  the  weights  of  many 
thousands  of  birds  in  the  large  packing  houses,  and  also  by  weigh- 
ing eggs  from  the  flocks  of  all  the  farms  visited.  These  observa- 
tions showed  that  the  average  weight  of  hens  on  the  farm  ranged 
from  24  to  4  pounds,  and  the  average  weight  of  eggs  per  dozen  was 
23  ounces.  At  a  glance  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  weight  of  the 
mature  fowls  is  very  much  lower  than  it  should  be,  and  observations 
have  shown  that  the  average  weight  of  a  dozen  eggs  from  purebred 
stock  does  not  fall  below  24  ounces.  The  standard  weights  of  the 
popular  general-purpose  breeds  are  given  below : 

Plymouth  Rocks  ((>  varieties)  :  lien,  74  pounds;  cock,  9}  pounds. 

Wyandottes  (8  varieties)  :  lien,  C>i  pounds:  cock,  8.V  pounds. 

Orpingtons  (3  varieties)  :  Hen  8  pounds;  cock,  10  pounds. 

Rhode  Island  Reds  (2  varieties)  :  Hen,  Gi  pounds;  cock,  S\  pounds. 

While  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  stock  on  the  farms  in  this  section 
is  undersized,  and  that  the  eggs  are  smaller  than  those  of  purebreds. 
it  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  there  is  a  tendency  at  the  present  time 
to  improve  this  inferior  stock  or  discard  it.  entirely  by  purchasing 
eggs  or  stock  of  some  breeder  who  handles  a  pure  breed  of  the  gen- 
eral-purpose type.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this  change  is  that  many 
of  the  large  packing  houses  are  offering  2  to  3  cents  more  per  pound 
for  market  fowls  of  the  heavier  breeds  than  they  are  for  the  Medi- 
terranean or  lighter  breeds.  The  following  table  shows  the  breeds 
of  poultry  kept  on  the  1)2  farms  where  detailed  studies  were  made, 
and  the  relative  proportion  of  purebred  flocks  and  flocks  of  mixed 
breeding: 

TABLE  4. — Breeding  of  eJiiekeiiN  kept  on  9>  K<int«tx  furnn. 


Purebred  flocks. 


Klooks  of  mixed  breeding. 


Breed. 

Number     Percent 
of  farms,     of  total. 

Hreed  predominating. 

Xmnlver 
of  farms. 

Percent 
of  total. 

T'lvmouth  Rook 

4              4.3 

Plvmouth  Rock 

•14 

17  S 

1,/oghorn  

5              ">.  4 

Leghorn                              

13 

1  1.  1 

Rhode  Inland  Red 

2              22 

Rhode,  Island  Ked 

4 

4  :i 

Orpington 

1               1   1 

Orpinirton 

1                 4 

1  3 

Wvandotte  

4              4.3 

W  vandotte.  .  .                .     .  .  . 

LanjTghnn 

2              22 

Brahma 

.> 

•>  •> 

Minorca 

1 

l  i 

Plain  mixed 

4 

4.3 

Total 

18             19.5 

Total 

71 

SO.  3 

24  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE    FARM   EGG. 


POULTRY    BUILDINGS. 


The  majority  of  the  farm  poultry  buildings  are  either  poorly  con- 
structed for  the  purpose,  or  were  buildings  which  had  formerly  been 
used  for  other  purposes.  There  is  little  indication  of  any  special 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  provide  clean  comfortable  quarters 
for  his  fowls.  He  seems  to  take  it  for  granted  that  the  fowls,  unlike 
the  horses  and  cattle  and  other  live  stock,  do  not  require  comfortable 
quarters  in  order  to  be  profitably  maintained.  In  this  assumption  he 
is  partially  correct,  for  where  there  is  very  little  investment  and  a 
more  or  less  regular  income  he  is  sure  to  realize  some  profit.  It  is,  in 
fact,  almost  impossible  to  neglect  fowls  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
are  maintained  at  a  loss  under  such  conditions.  Even  in  instances 
where  the  farm  flock  is  compelled  to  roost  in  the  trees  throughout  the 
entire  year,  and  forage  for  the  greater  part  of  their  feed,  some  profit 
is  usually  realized.  All  this  is  true  because  the  fowls,  on  account  of 
this  hardy  outdoor  existence,  are  as  a  rule  in  excellent  health  and  pro- 
duce enough  eggs  in  the  spring  and  summer  months  to  return  a  rea- 
sonable profit  to  the  farmer. 

Views  are  reproduced  in  the  upper  portion  of  Plate  II,  showing  two 
extreme  types  of  poultry  houses,  the  one  poorly  and  the 'other  well 
constructed.  Both  houses  provide  comfortable  quarters  for  the  fowls 
in  so  far  as  protection  from  the  wTeather  is  concerned,  but  when  we 
consider  the  question  of  eradicating  disease,  lice,  or  mites,  the  build- 
ing shown  in  figure  1  presents  a  difficult  problem.  It  is  true  that  for 
all  practical  purposes  the  building  in  figure  2  does  not  afford  any  bet- 
ter protection  from  the  \veather  elements  than  the  inferior  house,  but 
the  material  and  workmanship  is  such  that  diseases  and  vermin  can  be 
successfully  combated.  The  most  serious  objection  to  this  house  is 
that  it  is  a  more  expensive  structure  than  many  farmers  would  care 
to  erect.  There  is,  however,  no  necessity  for  going  to  one  extreme  or 
the  other,  and  in  figure  3  is  shown  what  can  rightly  be  called  a  happy 
medium.  This  house  combines  the  good  points  of  both  the  others, 
and  the  material  and  workmanship  is  such  that  it  is  as  easy  to  keep 
in  a  sanitary  condition  as  the  more  expensive  house. 


CLEANLINESS    AND    VENTILATION. 


A  not  uncommon  practice  on  Kansas  farms  is  to  clean  the  poultry 
house  only  once  or  twice  a  year  and  the  result  is  that  many  of  the 
houses  are  in  a  very  filthy  condition.  The  accumulation  of  filth  and 
droppings  on  the  floor  of  the  poultry  houses,  95  per  cent  of  which 
have  dirt  floors,  opens  the  way  for  the  invasion  of  many  infectious 
diseases,  and  the  droppings  from  one  sick  fowl  may  be  the  means  of 
infecting  the  entire  flock.  In  one  or  two  instances  the  houses  were 
equipped  with  a  dropping  board  under  the  roosts.  This  practice  is 


141.  BUREAU  OF  ASIWAL  INDUSTRY,   U.  S.  D:pr.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PLATE  I. 


A  FARM  FLOCK  OF  RHODE  ISLAND  RED  CHICKENS. 


BUL.  141,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PLATE 


FIG.  1  —A  CRUDELY  CONSTRUCTED  POULTRY 
HOUSE. 


FIG.  2.— A  WELL-CONSTRUCTED  POULTRY 
HOUSE. 


FIG.  3.— AN  INEXPENSIVE  PRACTICAL  FARM  POULTRY  HOUSE. 


FEEDING    METHODS   OF    POULTRY    IN    KANSAS.  2o 

to  be  highly  commended,  since  it  prevents  the  accumulation  of  drop- 
pings on  the  floor,  and  also  makes  it  easy  to  remove  them. 

No  special  attention  was  given  to  supplying  the  fowls  with  a  liberal 
amount  of  fresh  air,  but  because  the  majority  of  the  houses  are  of 
crude  construction,  and  also  by  means  of  small  windows,  doors,  and 
numerous  cracks  and  openings  the  fowls  suffered  little  from  the  lack 
of  ventilation.  In  relation  to  the  amount  of  door  space  }>er  bird,  it 
is  a  common  occurrence  to  find  from  75  to  100  fowls  housed  in  a  build- 
ing of  such  dimensions  that  it  allows  each  fowl  only  about  1  square 
foot  of  floor  space,  and  it  was  easy  to  find  cases  where  even  less  space 
than  this  was  provided.  However,  where  the  fowls  are  allowed  free 
range  on  all  suitable  days,  and  the  house  is  cleaned  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, the  question  of  a  definite  amount  of  floor  space  per  bird  is  not 
very  important. 

The  farmer  of  the  Middle  "West  seldom,  if  ever,  confines  his  poultry 
in  yards,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  has  been  a  most  important 
factor  in  maintaining  the  vigor  and  health  of  the  fowls  so  admirably. 
The  condition  of  the  farm  flocks  in  respect  to  these  two  qualities  is 
well  shown  bv  the  following  figures  from  the  9:2  farms: 


TABLK  5. — Ilcaltli  nntl  ri</or  of  poullnj  flock*  on  !>,>  Kaunas  farms. 


Health. 

Vigor. 

Good. 

Fair. 

Poor. 

Good. 

Fair. 

Poor. 

Go 

19 

8 

67 

IS 

7 

FKEDINO    MKTHODS. 


During  the  spring,  summer,  and  fall  the  fowls  are  compelled  to 
forage  for  the  greater  part  of  their  living.  Even  during  the  winter 
months  they  are  fortunate  if  they  receive  more  than  one  feed  a  day. 
Consequently  they  are  compelled  to  pick  up  a  considerable  portion 
of  their  living  around  the  barn  and  eorncrib.  This  condition  has 
arisen  from  the  practice  of  giving  the  poultry  free  access  to  the  feed 
lots  for  beef  cattle  and  hogs.  In  feeding  the  steers  and  hogs  the  corn 
is  often  dumped  in  piles  about  the  feed  lot.  thus  making  it  possible 
for  the  fowls  to  procure  a  liberal  feed  of  corn  at  least  once  a  day. 
At  thrashing  time  also  there  is  considerable  waste  grain  which  would 
be  a  total  loss  if  not  utilized  by  the  poultry.  The  fields  of  alfalfa 
make  an  ideal  range  and  furnish  abundant  green  feed.  It  is  quite 
common  to  see  the  alfalfa  stack  in  close  proximity  to  the  barn  and 
other  outbuildings,  and  in  this  case  the  fowls  have  green  feed  close  at 
hand. 


26  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE   FARM   EGG. 

Where  any  attempt  is  made  to  supply  the  fowls  with  grain  regu- 
larly once  or  twice  a  day  the  following  feeds  are  generally  used : 
Corn,  wheat,  kafir  corn,  and  spelt.  Of  these  the  one  most  commonly 
used  is  corn.  The  fowls  do  not  receive  a  regular  supply  of  meat 
feed,  and  when  insects  are  no  longer  available  they  are  compelled  to 
exist  on  an  unbalanced  ration  of  starchy  grains.  It  is,  however,  a 
common  practice  to  give  the  fowls  the  offal  from  whatever  butcher- 
ing may  be  done  on  the  farm,  and  often  the  farmer  may  kill  jack 
rabbits,  which  are  sometimes  used  as  meat  feed  for  the  poultry.  The 
supply  of  meat  feed  is,  however,  very  irregular.  Practically  every 
flock  examined  showed  more  or  less  feather  pulling,  thought  to  be  the 
result  of  an  insufficient  supply  of  this  material. 

Crushed  clam  shells  are  used  almost  exclusively  to  furnish  the 
fowls  with  carbonate  of  lime.  Grit  in  the  form  of  commercially 
prepared  crushed  stone  is  seldom  used,  but  many  farmers  haul  a  load 
of  coarse  sand  to  the  barnyard  and  allow  the  fowls  free  access  to  it 
at  all  times.  Such  a  method  is  inexpensive  to  the  farmer  and  fur- 
nishes the  fowls  with  an  abundant  supply  of  grit. 

The  water  supply  for  the  poultry  is  usually  both  insufficient  and 
insanitary.  Vessels  of  every  size  and  description,  such  as  oven  doors, 
milk-can  tops,  wooden  troughs,  pails,  and  cans  of  all  sizes,  are  used 
as  reservoirs  for  water.  It  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to 
find  these  vessels  clean  and  filled  with  water.  They  are  more  apt  to 
be  completely  dry  and  dirty,  while  the  fowls  can  be  seen  drinking 
from  a  cesspool  in  the  barnyard  or  a  wallowr  in  the  pigpen. 


HATCHING    AND    BROODING. 


There  are  two  general  systems  of  hatching  and  brooding  the  chicks : 
First,  hatching  and  brooding  with  hens  exclusively ;  second,  hatching 
the  eggs  in  an  incubator  and  then  giving  the  chicks  to  hens.  The 
former  is  practiced  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  latter,  and  in  many 
instances  a  combination  of  both  is  used.  Where  this  is  done  it  is  a 
general  practice  to  set  a  number  of  hens  at  the  same  time,  and  when 
the  hatch  comes  off  the  chicks  are  divided  up  among  them.  Many 
chicks  are  produced  by  hens  stealing  their  nests,  and  this  condition 
is  responsible  for  a  large  per  cent  of  the  immature  stock  that  is  so 
noticeable  in  the  fall  and  early  winter. 

If  fowls  are  used  exclusively  for  hatching  and  rearing,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  get  the  chicks  out  early  on  account  of  the  hens'  indispo- 
sition to  sit.  It  was  largely  to  overcome  this  difficulty  that  the  incu- 
bator has  been  adopted  on  the  farm.  A  comparison  of  the  relative 
frequency  with  which  artificial  and  natural  methods  or  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  are  used,  both  in  hatching  and  brooding,  is  given  in 
Table  6. 


METHODS    OF    MARKETING    POULTRY.  27 

TABLE  G. — Methods  of  incubation  and  brooding  uwd  on  'J>  Kan-vax  farm*. 


Hatching. 

Brooding. 

Natural. 

Artificial. 

Combina- 
tion. 

Natural. 

Artificial. 

Combina- 
tion. 

54 

16 

22 

80 

3 

9 

The  methods  of  feeding  the  chicks  are  for  the  most  part  very 
simple.  Some  chicks  are  grown  on  nothing  but  corn  meal  and 
cracked  corn,  and  others  receive  only  millet  seed  until  they  are  large 
enough  to  consume  the  coarser  grains.  There  are  many  farms.  ho\v- 


'•  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

*  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

*  A 

A 

-A 

A 

*•  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

*  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

»  A 

A 

-  A 

A 

*  A 

A 

«  A 

A 

*  A 

A 

FIG.  1. — Method  of  toe-marking  chicks  to  determine  age.      Sixteen  different  toe   m:irks. 

ever,  where  such  extreme  measures  are  not  used,  a  happy  medium 
l>eing  reached  by  using  some  commercial  chick  feed  in  connection 
with  such  products  as  are  produced  on  the  farm. 

METHOD  OF   MARKING   POfl.TRY   TO   DETERMINE   ACE. 

At  the  present  time  05  per  cent  of  the  farmers  have  no  positive. 
method  of  determining  the  age  of  their  poultry.     From  an  economic 


28  IMPEOVEMENT   OF    THE   FARM   EGG. 

standpoint  it  is  very  desirable  that  when  a  farmer  markets  a  part  of 
his  stock  he  should  be  able  by  some  accurate  method  to  ascertain  the 
age  of  the  fowls  which  he  sells.  Such  a  plan  would  tend  to  decrease 
the  enormous  number  of  pullets  and  yearling  hens  which  through 
lack  of  system  are  now  being  disposed  of  while  old  hens  are  often 
retained.  Yearling  hens  and  pullets  especially  will  in  the  course 
of  the  year  return  to  the  farmer  a  greater  profit  from  the  eggs  which 
they  produce  than  will  the  older  fowls.  Hens  can  be  kept  at  a  good 
profit  until  they  have  passed  their  second  year,  but  they  are  not  as  a 
rule  profitable  beyond  that  age. 

The  most  common  method  of  marking  poultry  is  to  leg-band  them. 
These  bands  are  manufactured  from  aluminum,  wire,  and  composite 
metals,  and  are  placed  around  the  leg  of  the  fowl  and  fastened  in 
numerous  ways.  This  system,  wrhile  eminently  satisfactory,  requires 
more  labor  and  attention  than  most  farmers  would  care  to  give.  A 
more  practical  method  is  by  punching  the  web  of  the  foot  at  the  time 
the  chick  is  hatched.  The  operation  is  simple  and  an  entire  hatch 
can  be  toe-marked  in  a  short  time.  Figure  1  shows  a  diagram  of  a 
system  by  which  1C  different  combinations  of  toe-marking  are  possible. 
If  only  one  mark  is  employed  for  all  chicks  hatched  in  a  given  year, 
no  farmer  would  find  it  necessary  to  use  more  than  three  or  four  of 
these  marks,  but,  if  it  were  desired  to  show  ages  more  closely,  or  to 
mark  pedigree  stock,  all  the  forms  indicated  might  be  found  useful. 


INSUFFICIENT    NUMBER    OF    NESTS. 


While  the  conditions  thus  far  discussed  surrounding  the  keeping  of 
poultry  on  Kansas  farms  have  a  great  influence  upon  the  number 
and  size  of  the  eggs  produced  and  may  also  have  some  influence  upon 
their  quality,  there  are  other  conditions  which  have  a  much  more 
direct  influence  upon  quality  and  are  responsible  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  deterioration  wrhich  has  occurred  by  the  time  the  eggs  reach  the 
country  store.  Among  these  are.  insufficient  number  of  nests,  dirty 
nests,  irregularity  in  gathering  eggs,  allowing  the  males  to  run  with 
the  flock  after  the  hatching  season,  poor  storing  facilities,  washing 
eggs,  holding  for  a  definite  number  of  eggs,  and  careless  methods  of 
transportation  from  the  farm  to  the  village. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  one  factor  contributes  more  to  the  aggre- 
gate number  of  bad  eggs  on  the  farm  than  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  properly  located,  clean  nests.  The  average  number  of  nests 
on  the  Kansas  farms  observed  is  11  to  every  100  hens.  This  means 
that  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  fowls  are  compelled  to  seek  nests  for 
themselves.  This  condition  is  well  shown  in  Table  7. 


NESTS   AND   THEIR   CONDITION.  29 

TABLE  7. — Number  of  nest  ft  In  number  of  hens  kept  on  9.2  Kanxaa  farms. 


Nests  to  hens. 

Number 
of  farms. 

Nests  to  hens. 

Number 
of  farms. 

No  nests   . 

5 

1  nest  to  13  hens  ....          

4 

1  nest  to  100  hens 

1 

1  nest  to  12  hens 

0 

1  nest  to  57  hens   ... 

1 

1  nest  to  1  1  hens  

3 

1 

1  nest  to  10  hens 

12 

1  nest  to  37  hens   .  . 

1 

1  nest  to  9  hens 

3 

1  nest  to  33  hens  .... 

2 

1  nest  to  8  hens  

f> 

1  nest  to  30  hens 

2 

1  nest  to  7  hens  ... 

1  nest  to21hens  

1 

1  nest  to  (i  hens  .... 

1  nest  to  20  hens 

2 

1  nest  to  5  hens 

1  nest  to  18  hens.  . 

3 

1  nest  to  4  hens.  . 

1  nest  to  17  hens.  ... 

1 

1  nest  to  3  hens  ....            

;{ 

1  nest  to  16  hens 

2 

1  nest  to  2  hens 

6 

1  nest  to  15  hens.  . 

1 

More  than  1  nest  to  1  hen  ... 

1 

1  nest  to  14  hens  

3 

The  horse  stable,  straw  stack,  under  the  corncrib,  or  out  in  the  weeds 
are  the  places  usually  chosen  by  the  hens  when  a  sufficient  number  of 
nests  is  not  available.  It  is  well  known  that  vigorous  bacterial 
growth  depends  largely  upon  moisture  and  warmth,  and  these  factors 
are. usually  present  in  such  places.  The  result  is  that  when  a  nest 
full  of  such  eggs  is  discovered,  from  50  to  80  per  cent  of  them  have 
already  developed  into  seconds,  blood  rings,  and  rots. 

The  excuse  is  often  given  by  farmers  that  if  they  went  to  the 
trouble  and  expense  of  providing  liberal  nesting  facilities  the  hens 
would  not  utilize  them,  as  they  prefer  the  secluded  nest  of  their  own 
choosing.  While  it  is  true  that  in  many  instances  hens  will  steal 
their  nests  rather  than  lay  in  places  provided  for  them,  especially 
during  the  spring  which  is  the  natural  hatching  season,  it  was 
observed  that  on  the  farms  where  nests  were  provided  at  the  rate  of 
one  for  every  four  or  five  hens,  and  were  kept  free  from  vermin,  05 
per  cent  of  the  eggs  were  laid  in  these  nests,  and  it  was  only  oeca- 
sionallv  that  a  hen  would  lav  elsewhere. 


UIKTY    NKSTS. 


It  hardly  seems  necessary  to  make  any  mention  of  dirty  nests,  but 
the  investigations  of  the  past  year  prove  conclusively  that  either 
through  carelessness,  neglect,  or  utter  indifference  the  nests  often 
become  so  filthy  that  the  hens  refuse  to  lay  in  them.  When  such 
nests  are  used  the  new-laid  eggs  come  in  contact  with  the  droppings 
of  the  fowls,  which  contain  numerous  bacteria,  and  the  e<nrs  mav 

~  ~  . 

therefore  become  infected  before  they  are  removed  from  the  nest. 
This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  eggs  are  unfit  for  food  at 
this  time;  but  the  infection  having  taken  place,  they  are  likely  sub- 
jects for  the  production  of  spots  and  rots.  One  of  the  greatest  needs. 
therefore,  in  improving  the  condition  of  eggs  on  the  farm  is  to  pro- 
vide an  abundance  of  clean  nests  free  from  vermin. 


30  IMPROVEMENT   OF    THE    FARM   EGG 

IRREGULARITY     IN     GATHERING     THE    EGGS. 

The  practice  of  combining  forces  and  organizing  a  general  search 
party  to  gather  in  the  eggs  on  market  day  is  still  practiced  on  many 
of  the  farms  in  Kansas.  This  is  indeed  a  deplorable  custom,  and 
there  is  no  question  but  that  it  is  the  cause  of  many  rotten  eggs.  It 
is  easy  to  see  how  eggs  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days  or  a  week 
in  the  unsuitable  places  where  they  may  have  been  laid,  subjected 
probably  to  high  temperature,  wet  by  dew  and  by  rain,  and  perhaps 
sat  upon  by  a  broody  hen,  are  certain  to  have  undergone  serious 
deterioration  if  they  are  not  absolutely  spoiled. 

MALES    RUNNING    WITH    FLOCK    AFTER    HATCHING    SEASON. 

This  is  the  usual  rather  than  the  unusual  condition.  Of  the  92 
farms,  there  were  only  16  on  which  any  effort  had  been  made  to 
separate  the  males  from  the  hens  after  the  hatching  season,  while  on 
the  remaining  76  farms  the  males  and  hens  ranged  together.  Justifi- 
cation for  this  practice  is  sometimes  sought  in  the  argument  that 
there  will  be  some  stolen  nests  that  remain  undiscovered  for  so  long 
that  even  the  conscience  hardened  by  the  case-count  system  of  buying 
will  not  consent  to  their  being  marketed,  and  that  if  these  eggs  had 
been  fertilized  by  allowing  the  males  to  run  with  the  flock  a  part 
of  the  eggs  would  have  hatched  and  the  loss  would  not  have  been 
absolute.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  a  much  greater 
loss  actually  does  occur  when  the  eggs  are  fertile,  for  it  is  from  the 
fertile  eggs  only  that  the  great  mass  of  bad  and  deteriorated  eggs 
known  as  heated  eggs,  blood  rings,  and  many  of  the  rots  develop. 
With  the  eradication  of  fertile  eggs  during  the  hot  summer  months, 
a  large  part  of  the  problem  of  heated  eggs  would  be  solved.  Surely 
this  is  not  a  difficult  condition  to  bring  about  if  each  one  would  do 
his  part. 

INEFFICIENT   STORING   FACILITIES. 

This  is  a  serious  difficulty  with  which  the  fawner's  wife  has  to  con- 
tend, as  a  great  many  of  the  country  homes  in  Kansas  do  not  have 
dry,  cool  cellars,  and  when  the  thermometer  begins  to  register  from 
100  to  106°  F.,  there  is  no  good  place  to  keep  perishable  produce. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty  use  is  often  made  of  the  "  cyclone  cellar," 
or  cave.  In  some  instances  these  caves  are  of  concrete  construction 
throughout,  and  on  such  farms  very  little  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  keeping  eggs  in  good  condition.  Some  of  the  caves,  however,  are 
nothing  more  than  oblong  holes  in  the  ground  over  which  a  rough 
gable  roof  is  built.  The  soil  which  has  been  excavated  to  make  the 
cave  is  thrown  over  this  roof  and  thoroughly  packed  so  as  to  make  it 
cool  and  practically  waterproof.  Caves  of  such  construction  are 
very  hard  to  keep  clean  on  account  of  the  dampness  and  mold,  which 
are  always  present  when  dirt  walls  and  floor  are  used,  and  conse- 


METHODS   OF    HANDLING    EGGS    BY    FARMER. 


31 


quently  they  are  very  undesirable  as  a  storage  room  for  eggs.  Damp- 
ness is  conducive  to  the  rapid  development  of  mold  and  bacteria, 
and  consequently  eggs  kept  in  these  caves  are  much  more  likely  to 
show  deterioration  than  if  they  were  held  in  a  dry  room  at  the  same 
temperature. 

WASHING     KGGS. 

The  lack  of  the  necessary  number  of  clean  nests  and  irregularity 
in  gathering  eggs,  especially  on  rainy  days,  are  the  two  main  reasons 
why  it  is  often  necessary  for  the  farmer's  wife  to  wash  part  of  the 
eggs.  No  one  would  ever  accuse  a  neat  housewife  of  taking  dirty 
eggs  to  town,  and  in  order  to  maintain  this  reputation  they  are  very 
careful  to  see  that  each  egg  is  clean  before  packing  it  in  the  case. 
This  practice,  while  not  always  harmful,  often  results  in  the  egg 
becoming  contaminated  with  some  form  of  micro-organism.  The 
eggshell  itself  is  porous  and  not  germ  proof,  and  the  pores  are  large 
enough  to  allow-  the  invasion  of  moisture  and  bacteria,  but  the  mem- 
brane beneath  the- shell  is  comparatively  germ  proof  so  long  as  it 
remains  dry;  hence  it  is  desirable  that  the  eggs  be  clean  in  the  first 
place,  so  that  water  will  not  have  to  be  brought  in  contact  with  them. 

HOLDING    KGGS    VNTIL    A    QUANTITY    HAS    ACCTJMULATKD. 

The  farmer  often  makes  use  of  an  egg  case  in  which  to  keep  his 
eggs  and  carry  them  to  market.  Sometimes  he  owns  the  case  and 
sometimes  it  is  furnished  him  by  the  storekeeper.  Often  the  case 
is  one  holding  30  dozen  eggs,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  wait  until  it 
is  filled  before  taking  it  to  market.  As  this  would  take  considerable 
time  with  the  average-sized  flock,  the  quality  of  the  eggs  will  have 
suffered  appreciably.  Smaller  cases,  holding  12  dozen  eggs,  are  also 
used  for  this  purpose  and  are  much  to  be  preferred,  as  they  encourage 
more  frequent  marketing.  Another  factor  which  influences  the  fre- 
quency of  marketing  is  the  distance  of  the  farm  from  the  village  or 
country  store.  The  greater  the  distance  the  less  often  are  the  trips 
made  and  consequently  the  less  convenient  it  is  to  market  eggs  fre- 
quently. Table  8  indicates  this  tendency. 

TABLE  S. — Distance  from  market  in,  relattim  to  frequency  of  market iny  <'gax  on 

'JO  l  Kan-sax  farm*. 


Twice  weekly. 

Weekly. 

Onec  in  two  weeks. 

Number 

of  farms. 

Average 
distance 
to 
market. 

Numlxjr 
of  farms. 

Average 
distance 
to 
market. 

Number 
of  farms. 

Average 
distance 
to 
market. 

2C, 

Milts. 
2.4S 

61 

MUM. 

4.12 

3 

Miles. 
8.  5 

i  The  two  farms  not  included  in  this  table  did  not  send  eggs  to  market  during  a  large  part  of  the  year. 
one  case  the  eggs  were  used  at  home  while  in  the  other  they  were  sold  for  hatching. 


In 


IMPEOVEMENT   OP   THE   FARM  EGG. 


CARELESS    METHODS    OF   TRANSPORTATION   FROM   FARM    TO  VILLAGE. 

While  this  element  of  egg  deterioration  does  not  cause  a  marked  loss 
or  change  in  itself,  because  it  occupies  a  relatively  brief  time,  it  is 
nevertheless  a  contributing  factor.  In  figure  1  of  Plate  IV  is  shown  a 
picture  of  the  farmer  and  his  family  on  their  way  to  market.  .  This 
particular  drive  was  one  of  8  miles  and  the  egg  case  was  exposed  to 
the  sun's  rays  during  the  entire  trip.  At  the  time  the  picture  was 
taken  the  thermometer  registered  106°  F.  on  the  top  of  the  egg  case. 

THE  FARMER'S  MARKET. 

The  farmer  may  market  his  eggs  through  any  one  of  the  following 
agencies:  (1)  The  country  store;  (2)  the  cash  buyer;  (3)  the  huck- 
ster; and  (4)  the  cooperative  creamery.  Of  these  four  outlets  the 
country  store  is  by  far  the  most  important.  The  reason  why  this 
system  is  so  universal,  together  with  the  effect  it  has  on  the  quality 
of  the  eggs,  have  already  been  discussed  (see  p.  14). 


PRESENT   FEATURES    OF    STORE   DEALING. 


Under  the  present  system  of  buying  loss-off,  or  on  a  quality  basis, 
many  of  the  storekeepers  in  Kansas  have  relinquished  the  handling 
of  farm  eggs.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  merchant  does 
not  feel  that  he  can  go  to  the  expense  and  trouble  of  candling,  and  also 
to  the  fact  that  if  in  defiance  of  the  pure-food  laws  of  the  State  he 
attempts  to  continue  on  the  case-count  basis,  at  the  same  time  offer- 
ing as  much  as  his  competitors  who  are  buying  on  the  loss-off  basis, 
he  is  experiencing  a  much  heavier  loss  on  his  eggs  than  formerly. 
If  he  does  not  offer  as  much  as  his  competitors  he  is  likely  to  get  only 
the  most  undesirable  class  of  eggs,  which  will  increase  his  loss  still 
more.  What  this  loss  may  amount  to  in  a  single  week  will  be  seen 
from  Table  9.  The  figures  given  were  secured  from  one  of  the  car- 
lot  shippers  and  taken  direct  from  the  report  of  his  candlers. 

TABLE  9. — Candler's  report,  slioicing  losses  in  eggs  received  during  one  week  in 

August,  1910. 


Loss  from 

Loss  from 

Shipper. 

Total  re- 
ceipts. 

Firsts. 

Seconds. 

Rots. 

seconds  at 
6  cents  per 

rots  at  15 
cents  per 

Total  loss. 

dozen. 

dozen. 

Dozen. 

Dozen. 

Dozen. 

Dozen. 

Merchant  A  

180 

106i 

95 

48J 

$1.50 

$7.28 

$8.78 

Merchant  B  

300 

142  . 

40 

118 

2.40 

17.70 

20.  10 

Merchant  C  

4£0 

280 

38 

132 

2.28 

19.80 

22.08 

Total. 

930 

528J 

103 

298J 

6.18 

44.78 

50.% 

In  buying  on  the  loss-off  basis,  the  storekeeper  would  in  all  proba- 
bility have  made  no  distinction  between  the  firsts  and  seconds,  but 


Buu.  141,  BUREAU  O"  AMWAL  INDUSTRY,  U.  S.   DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PLATE 


FIG.  1.— TREE  NESTS,  WHERE  SOME  KANSAS 
HENS  LAY. 


FIG.  2.— GATHERING  EGGS  FROM  UNDER  THE  CURNCRIB. 


BUL.  141,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  U.  S.  DEPT.  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


PLATE  IV, 


FIG.  1.— TAKING  EGGS  TO  MARKET.  EGG  CASE  EX- 
POSED TO  SUN'S  RAYS  DURING  S-MILE  DRIVE  AT 
TEMPERATURE  OF  106°  F. 


FIG.  2.— A  SHIPMENT  OF  EGGS  ON  RAILROAD  PLAT- 
FORM AWAITING  ARRIVAL  OF  LOCAL  FREIGHT. 

[TIiu.se  cases  stood  in  the  sun  for  6  hours  in  a  temper- 
ature ranging  from  110°  to  1:50°  F.] 


THE    FARMER  S    MARKET.  33 

would  simply  have  thrown  out  the  rots.  The  loss  represented  by  the 
rots  would,  however,  have  been  saved,  excepting  a  small  proportion 
which  would  have  developed  between  the  times  the  storekeeper  and 
the  candler  handled  the  eggs. 

Driving  the  local  merchant  out  of  the  egg  business  is  not  inevita- 
ble, though  in  many  respects  it  would  be  greatly  to  his  advantage  and 
to  the  advantage  of  the  egg  trade.  Indeed,  the  merchants  of  some 
towns  have  voluntarily  withdrawn  by  mutually  agreeing  to  turn  the 
egg  trade  over  to  the  cash  buyer,  where  it  belongs.  This  is  the  sim- 
plest and  best  solution  of  the  problem.  It  has  also  been  suggested 
that  the  business  be  turned  over  to  the  produce  dealer,  who.  instead 
of  paying  cash,  shall  issue  scrip  which  will  be  taken  at  its  face  value 
in  payment  for  goods  at  any  of  the  local  stores.  The  whole  object 
of  this  plan  is  to  compel  the  farmer  to  patronize  home  trade. 

Other  plans  have  been  devised  and  are  working  with  some  degree  of 
success  which  attempt  to  keep  the  benefits  of  the  egg  trade  for  the 
merchant,  while  at  the  same  time  relieving  him  of  its  unpleasant 
features.  One  of  these  allows  the  farmer  to  trade  his  eggs  out  on  a 
case-count  basis  as  before,  but  these  eggs  are  kept  separate.  Each 
morning  the  receipts  of  the  previous  day  are  sold  to  the  local  cash 
buyer,  who  candles  the  eggs  and  reports  the  rots  or  bad  eggs  found 
in  each  individual  lot.  The  merchant  then  charges  the  loss  against 
the  farmer's  account  and  deducts  it  from  the  next  lot  of  eggs  brought 
in  if  he  has  no  balance  in  his  favor.  By  such  a  procedure  the  mer- 
chant is  obeying  the  law,  is  helping  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  eggs, 
is  protecting  himself  against  loss,  and  at  the  same  time  is  retaining 
his  egg  trade.  This  means  that  instead  of  unloading  inferior  mer- 
chandise upon  his  customers,  as  he  did  when  the  case-count  system 
was  in  vogue,  he  is  able  to  give  them  full  value  for  their  money. 
He  has  no  loss  to  figure  and  need  not  fear  the  competition  of  his 
fellow  merchants  or  the  large  out  of  town  mail-order  houses.  As 
soon  as  the  farmer  is  made  to  realize  that  every  merchant  in  town 
is  going  to  candle  his  eggs,  he  immediately  commences  to  take  better 
care  of  them  and  carefully  compares  the  prices  on  various  articles 
of  food  and  clothing  as  advertised  by  the  merchants.  Thus  the  whole 
problem  simply  resolves  itself  into  the  question  of  legitimate  profits, 
and  unless  the  merchant  is  selfish  or  money  mad  there  is  no  logical 
reason  why  his  prices  can  not  be  made  as  attractive  as  those  of  his 
competitors. 

Aside  from  the  method  of  buying,  there  are  other  conditions  con- 
nected with  the  country  store  which  should  be  remedied  in  order  to 
give  best  results.  The  most  prominent  of  the>e  i>  in  frequency  in 
shipping.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  storekeeper  to  allow  his  eggs 
to  accumulate  for  a  week  or  even  longer  before  he  ships  them,  and  as 


34  IMPROVEMENT   OF    THE   FARM   EGG. 

he  has  no  room  specially  equipped  for  holding  eggs  and  must  depend 
upon  using  the  back  part  of  his  store  or  a  cellar,  this  is  a  serious 
cause  of  deterioration.  The  produce  dealer,  on  the  other  hand,  under- 
stands better  the  necessity  for  moving  the  eggs  as  quickly  as  possible, 
and  not  infrequently  ships  daily  during  hot  weather.  Under  such 
conditions  little  of  the  deterioration  occurring  can  be  laid  at  his  door. 
In  the  country  store  it  was  frequently  observed  that  the  egg  cases 
were  piled  alongside  of  merchandise  of  many  kinds,  among  them 
barrels  of  kerosene,  barrels  and  crates  of  vegetables,  and  other  mate- 
rials from  which  the  eggs  were  almost  certain  to  absorb  undesirable 
flavors  or  odors. 


THE    CASH    BUYER. 


The  cash  buyer  or  produce  dealer  may  be  in  business  for  himself 
or  may  be  the  agent  of  some  large  car-lot  shipper, or  creamery  com- 
pany. His  method  of  doing  business  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the 
country  merchant,  except  that  he  offers  cash  instead  of  merchandise. 
He  is  often  not  looked  upon  with  favor  by  the  town  merchants,  be- 
cause they  realize  that  the  farmer  prefers  the  cash  in  order  that  he 
may  purchase  his  merchandise  from  the  firm  offering  the  lowest 
prices.  As  long  as  the  merchants  were  able  to  dispose  of  their  eggs 
on  a  case-count  basis  they  could,  by  offering  1  or  2  cents  more  per 
dozen  in  merchandise,  retain  the  greater  part  of  their  trade.  The 
enforcement  of  the  loss-off  system,  however,  is  working  a  slow  but 
sure  change  in  this  system  and  a  greater  proportion  of  the  trade  is 
going  over  to  the  cash  buyer. 

In  studying  the  conditions  found  at  the  country  store  and  at  the 
cash  buyer's  the  following  card  was  used.  This  card  is  self- 
explanatory. 

[UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.] 
POULTRY  AND   EGG-MARKETING   INVESTIGATIONS. 

COUNTRY   STORE  OR  PRODUCE  DEALER'S    CARD. 

No. 


Name 

Address   

Date 

Sources  of  supply 

Relative  proportion  from  each  source- 
Frequency  of  receipts 

Character  of  payments 

Grading 

Methods  of  holding : 

Containers 

Repacking 

Nature  of  storeroom 

Capacity  of  storeroom 

Temperature  of  storeroom — 

Length  of  time  held 

How  shipped 

Size  of  shipment 


MARKETING    EGGS    THROUGH    THE    CREAMERY. 

Frequency  of  shipping- - 

Instance  from  store  to  shipping  point __ 

Length  of  railroad  haul 

Time  consumed   in  haul 

Outlet 

Name  and  address  of  person  or  firm  to  whom  sold__ 


mi:    IHVKSTKI:. 


The  huckster  or  peddler  who  gathers  eggs  directly  from  the  farm 
is  rarely  found  in  Kansas.  This  system  is  practiced  in  the  States 
of  Michigan.  Indiana,  Ohio.  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  the  North- 
eastern States.  Where  the  huckster  operates  in  thickly  settled 
localities  and  where  it  is  possible  to  have  a  twice  or  thrice  a  week 
service,  the  eggs  gathered  by  him  constitute  some  of  the  best  on  the 
market,  but  where  lie  makes  a  trip  of  a  week  or  10  days  the  eggs  are 
exposed  to  many  unfavorable  conditions  and  are  usually  poor  in 
quality. 


THK    I'OOI'KRATIVK    CRKAMERY. 


The  number  of  cooperative  creameries  handling  eggs  is  not  at  the 
present  time  large.  There  are  some  places  where  this  system  is 
working  successfully,  and  it  is  suggested  as  a  feasible  proposition  in 
localities  where  conditions  are  favorable.  The  chief  requisites  neces- 
sary to  operate  such  a  S3'stem  successfully  are:  (1)  A  well-established 
creamery  whose  manager  is  interested  in  the  welfare  and  advance- 
ment of  the  community  and  who  has  by  his  straightforward  dealings 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  farmers.  (*2)  A  locality  thickly  enough 
settled  to  supply  the  creamery  with  sufficient  eggs  to  maintain  a 
trade  in  some  near-by  city.  (3)  A  receptive  and  progressive  body 
of  farmers  who  will  cam-  out  their  part  of  the  agreement  with  the 
creamery.  (4)  A  system  of  gathering  up  the  cream  and  eggs  by 
the  creamery  wagons  or  their  delivery  by  the  farmers  at  frequent  and 
regular  intervals.  (5)  A  system  of  payment  which  shall,  like  the 
loss-off  system,  make  each  producer  responsible  for  the  quality  of 
the  eggs.  (('))  A  market  within  easy  shipping  distance  demanding 
good  dependable  eggs  and  willing  to  pay  a  premium  for  them.  For 
a  more  detailed  discussion  of  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to 
an  article  which  appeared  in  the  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  entitled  "Marketing  Eggs  Through  the 
Creamery,"  and  reprinted  as  Farmers'  Bulletin  445. 

SHIPPING    K<;<iS    LOCALLY. 

It  is  the  general  custom  for  the  farmer  in  Kansas  to  dispose  of  his 
eggs  through  the  country  merchant  or  the  cash  buyer.  The  country 
merchant  may  in  turn  either  sell  to  the  local  cash  buyer  or  ship  his 
receipts  independently  to  commission  men  or  car-lot  shippers  in  sur- 


36  IMPROVEMENT   OF   THE   FARM   EGG. 

rounding  cities.  In  most  towns  where  cash  buyers  are  located  it  is 
usual  for  the  merchant  to  dispose  of  his  receipts  through  this  chan- 
nel. In  many  towns,  however,  there  is  not  enough  business  to  sup- 
port a  cash  buyer,  and  in  such  cases  the  merchants  ship  to  the  firm 
offering  highest  quotations.  In  cases  where  the  cash  buyer  is  a  sal- 
aried agent  of  some  large  shipper  or  packer  he  of  course  forwards 
all  receipts  to  the  central  plant,  but  should  he  be  in  business  for  him- 
self the  parties  offering  the  best  prices  will  receive  the  bulk  of  his 
trade. 

In  shipping  the  eggs  both  the  country  merchant  and  the  cash  buyer 
are  often  guilty  of  careless  packing,  which  is  responsible  for  a  part 
of  the  breakage.  It  is  a  frequent  occurrence  to  find  old  tattered 
fillers  used  which  waste  more  money  in  time  spent  in  packing  the 
eggs  in  them  than  new  ones  \vould  cost.  Often  no  flats  are  used  be- 
tween the  fillers,  but  a  few  thicknesses  of  newspaper  are  depended 
on  to  take  their  place.  A  small  pad  of  excelsior  should  be  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  each  side  of  the  case  and  on  the  top  of  the  uppermost 
flats.  These  will  provide  elasticity  and  do  much  to  prevent  break- 
age. Frequently,  too,  the  trouble  is  taken  to  nail  the  top  of  the  case 
securely  in  the  center.  This  is  a  mistake,  as  it  prevents  elasticity 
and  is  unnecessary  if  the  top  is  nailed  securely  at  the  ends.  Excep- 
tionally large  eggs,  even  though  they  may  have  strong  shells,  are 
almost  sure  to  be  broken  if  packed  in  the  case,  and  will  smear  a  large 
number  of  other  eggs.  In  fact,  any  of  the  factors  causing  broken 
eggs  result  in  a  much  greater  loss  than  that  of  the  eggs  actually 
broken,  for  many  others  are  so  badly  smeared  that  they  must  be 
classed  in  lower  grades  than  they  would  otherwise  be  placed. 

The  eggs,  after  leaving  the  hands  of  the  immediate  collectors,  are 
handled  mainly  by  local  freights.  During  this  stage  of  their  jour- 
ney there  is  liberal  room  for  improvement.  The  general  rule  of 
most  railroads  is  that  eggs  or  any  other  products  which  are  to  be 
shipped  on  the  daily  freight  must  be  delivered  at  the  depot  at  least 
one  hour  before  scheduled  train  time.  If  all  trains  ran  on  scheduled 
time  this  rule  would  not  be  so  harmful,  but  since  this  is  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule  with  the  local  freight,  it  often  happens  that  the 
eggs  remain  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  several  hours. 
During  the  months  of  June,  July,  August,  and  September  the  quality 
of  the  eggs  suffers  from  this  treatment.  Plate  IV,  figure  2,  shows  a 
shipment  of  eggs  which  was  exposed  to  the  sun  for  six  hours  in  a 
temperature  ranging  from  110°  to  130°  F.  In  accordance  with  the 
rule,  these  eggs  were  delivered  at  the  depot  one  hour  before  train  time. 
On  this  particular  day,  however,  the  freight  was  several  hours  late, 
and  the  eggs  were  allowed  to  remain  in  this  extreme  temperature 
until  it  arrived.  Such  a  condition  could  be  materially  improved  if 
the  eggs  were  placed  under  a  covered  portion  of  the  platform,  where 


SHIPPING    EGGS    15V    LOC'AL   FREIGHT. 


37 


they  would  be  protected  from  the  sun.    It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  such 
covered  shelters  are  often  available,  but  they  are  seldom  utilized. 

When  the  cases  are  loaded  on  the  train  they  are  placed  either  in  a 
box  car  or  in  one  end  of  an  open  stock  car  which  is  also  used  for 
live  poultry.  (See  fig.  2.)  The  box  car  often  contains  empty  oil 
barrels  and  freight  of  similar  nature.  These  box  cars  are  opened 
when  a  stop  is  made,  and  then  only  long  enough  to  load  the  shipments 
from  that  station.  If  the  day  is  warm  the  temperature  inside  the  cars 
will  often  go  as  high  as  106°  F.  and  remain  at  that  point  for  hours. 


FIG.  2. — A  stock  car  used  for  shipping  poultry  and  ejjgs. 

The  temperature  of  the  open  stock  cars  is  from  8  to  10  degrees  lower 
than  that  in  box  cars  during  the  hottest  period  of  the  day.  and  owing 
to  the  free  circulation  of  air  very  much  cooler  after  the  sun  has  set. 
Coupled  with  this  exposure  to  high  temperature  and  injurious  odor- 
the  eggs  are,  of  course,  subjected  to  violent  but  unavoidable  shaking 
and  jarring  during  the  entire  trip. 

It  should  be  said  that  at  least  one  of  the  railroads  operating  in 
Kansas  has  taken  a  long  step  forward  in  the  matter  of  handling  eggs 
on  the  local  freights.  This  road  is  running  refrigerator  cars  into 
which  the  eggs  are  loaded,  and  the  most  favorable  temperature  possi- 


38  IMPROVEMENT    OF    THE   FARM    EGO. 

ble  to  get  under  these  conditions  is  maintained.  Some  of  the  packers 
consider  this  such  an  important  feature  in  improving  the  quality  of 
the  eggs  handled  by  them  that  they  intend  to  run  refrigerator  cars 
at  their  expense  over  some  of  the  lines  from  which  they  draw  heavily. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  ways  in  which  the 
railroads  can  help  in  this  movement  for  the  improvement  of  quality 
in  eggs:  (1)  Provide  covered  sections  of  station  platforms  and  re- 
quire that  eggs  waiting  for  shipment  be  stacked  there  out  of  the  sun ; 
(2)  provide  local  refrigerator  service  for  eggs;  (3)  if  refrigerator 
service  is  deemed  out  of  the  question,  provide  stock  cars  rather  than 
box  cars  for  moving  eggs  during  the  summer  months. 

THE    CAR-LOT   SHIPPER. 

After  the  eggs  leave  the  hands  of  the  country  merchants  and  local 
cash  buyers  they  are  next  handled  by  the  packers  and  car-lot  shippers. 
These  men  maintain  central  houses  at  important  railroad  junctions 
and  at  various  other  large  towns  and  cities.  They  are  keen,  shrewd, 
business  men,  handling  large  quantities  of  eggs,  so  that  they  realize 
the  necessity  of  good  treatment  after  the  product  reaches  their  hands. 
While  there  is  still  room,  no  doubt,  for  considerable  improvement  in 
methods  from  this  point  on,  this  end  of  the  trade  is  much  further 
advanced  at  the  present  time  than  that  represented  by  the  producer 
and  storekeeper,  so  that  the  greatest  need  for  the  improvement  of 
methods  of  handling  and  thus  of  improving  the  quality  of  eggs  is 
from  the  farm  to  the  packing  house. 

During  the  course  of  the  investigation  of  conditions  it  was  found 
desirable  to  carry  on  certain  experimental  work.  This  consisted  of 
following  shipments  of  eggs  which  had  been  subjected  to  various  con- 
ditions through  to  the  packing  house  to  determine  the  changes  which 
took  place.  In  this  work  a  card,  the  front  and  back  of  which  is 
shown  below,  was  used  in  assembling  the  data.  The  work  along  this 
line  thus  far  conducted  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  be  conclusive,  and  is 
not,  therefore,  discussed  in  this  bulletin. 

[Front  of  card.] 

[UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY.] 
POULTRY   AND   EGG-MARKETING   INVESTIGATIONS. 

HANDLING  EGGS. 

Observer Date Experiment  No 

Statement  of  experiment 


Material  used . 


Eggs  produced  by ' Farmers'  Card  No. 

Date  laid Where  held 

Container  and  its  condition How  long  held 

Date  and  hour  left  farm  for  market, . . . 


EDUCATIONAL   tt'OKK. 


Haul  to  market  or  store  by  fanner:  Time Miles 

Container 

\S'agon Condition  of  road 

Haul  to  market  or  store  by  egg  collector  or  huckster:  Card  No Time Miles 

Container 

Wagon Condition  of  road 

Store  or  buyer  to  whom  sold Card  No 

Date  received  at  store IIow  long  held 

Where  held Container  and  its  condition 

How  packed  for  shipment Kind  and  condition  of  cases  and  fillers 

Date  and  hour  left  store  for  station Length  of  haul 

Where  held  at  station How  long  held Covered  or  uncovered 

Size  of  shipment Time  put  on  car 

Kind  of  car Eggs  alone  or  eggs  and  poultry  in  car 

Length  and  time  of  railroad  haul Reloaded 


[Back  of  card.] 


Date  and  time  of  arrival  at  packing  house 

How  handled  at  packing  house:  How  long  before  put  in  cooler Temperature  of  cooler  . 

Candling  before  or  after  cooling Grading Packing 

Time  held How  shipped 

Date  and  hour  put  in  car  for  shipment Kind  of  car Time  of  shipment . . 

To  whom  shipped Date  of  shipment 

Remarks:  . . 


GRADE   OK  EGOS. 


Total 

eggs. 

Full 
and 
fresh. 

Badly       <,     . 
shrunken.   bPots" 

Blood 
rings. 

Hots. 

Checks. 

Leak- 
ers. 

At  farm  just  before  marketing.  . 

At  store  on  arrival 

1 

At  store  just  before  shipment  

On  arrival  at  packing  house 

On  leaving  packing  house  . 

EDUCATIONAL   WORK. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  while  the  farmers  and  storekeepers  have 
a  general  idea  of  some  things  which  cause  eggs  to  spoil,  there  are 
many  others  of  which  they  are  unaware,  and  the  importance  of  few,  if 
any,  are  fully  realized.  In  all  probability  they  have  not  given  the 
matter  much  thought,  and  since  they  have  been  able  to  sell  all  the 
eggs  they  produce,  though  at  a  comparatively  low  price  lo  be  sure, 
they  have  not  realized  that  they  are  actually  losers  as  the  result  of 
the  spoiled  eggs.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  educate  the  fanner 
especially  to  the  true  condition  of  affairs. 

In  its  work  the  bureau  has  kept  this  point  in  mind  and  has  made 
an  effort  to  disseminate  information  on  the  matter  wherever  possible. 


40  IMPROVEMENT    OP    THK   FARM    EGG. 

The  packers  and  car-lot  shippers  have  also  realized  the  benefits  which 
would  accrue  from  giving  the  matter  publicity  and  have  distributed 
circulars  and  other  printed  matter  pointing  out  the  most  essential 
features  to  be  observed  in  caring  for  eggs. 

In  connection  with  the  investigation  of  conditions  on  the  farm  the 
men  engaged  in  this  work  came  into  personal  contact  with  a  large 
number  of  farmers  and  housewives  and  explained  to  them  the  aims 
of  the  movement  and  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  it.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  farmers  visited  greater 
interest  is  now  being  taken  in  their  poultry,  and  much  greater  care  is 
being  given  to  the  eggs.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  as  soon  as  a 
farmer  becomes  interested  in  better  poultry  or  in  better  methods  of 
caring  for  them  he  takes  better  care  of  the  product.  Special  pains 
wrere  taken,  therefore,  to  give  good  practical  help  along  any  poultry 
lines  which  the  farmer  wished.  The  desire  for  information  concern- 
ing housing,  feeding,  etc.,  also  the  best  breeds  to  keep,  and  as  to  which 
were  the  best  birds  in  the  flock,  etc.,  wyas  astonishing.  By  supplying 
this  information  the  confidence  of  the  farmer  was  won  and  his  help 
and  support  secured  in  the  effort  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  eggs. 

Many  country  stores  were  also  visited.  The  object  of  these  visits 
was  to  become  acquainted  with  the  merchants  and  discuss  with  them 
the  loss-off  system  of  buying.  The  majority  of  these  merchants  know 
little  or  nothing  about  candling,  and  by  practical  demonstration  it 
was  possible  to  show  them  that  it  would  not  be  a  very  difficult  matter 
to  become  expert  enough  to  be  able  to  detect  rots,  spots,  and  blood 
rings. 

Some  educational  work  can  also  be  carried  on  through  the  poultry 
shows.  Anything  which  increases  the  interest  in  better  poultry 
helps  along  the  movement  for  the  improvement  of  eggs.  Poultry 
shows,  particularly  those  held  in  the  smaller  towns,  have  a  great  influ- 
ence along  this  line.  A  judge  who  will  spend  some  time  explaining 
the  good  points  of  birds  and  giving  reasons  for  awards  can  increase 
Hie  educative  value  of  the  show  wonderfully.  Exhibits  of  eggs  and 
market  poultry  can  often  be  arranged.  Packers  or  produce  men  can 
occasionally  be  found  who  will  provide  attractive  prizes  for  these 
classes.  The  bureau  has  in  some  instances  furnished  judges  for  these 
small  shows  and  has  frequently  sent  speakers  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing talks  concerning  the  care  and  handling  of  eggs.  It  has  also  been 
possible  to  extend  the  educational  work  by  referring  those  interested 
to  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  those  issued  by  the  State  experiment  stations  on  poultry  subjects. 

RESULTS   OF   FIRST   SEASON'S  WORK. 

Although  but  one  season  has  been  spent  by  the  bureau  in  this  work, 
several  much-desired  changes  have  been  brought  about.  The  most 


KKSL'LTS    OF    SEASON  ?S    WORK.  41 

important  of  these  was  the  adoption  by  the  Kansas  car-lot  shippers 
of  the  loss-off  system  of  buying  and  selling  eggs.  The  immediate 
effect  of  this  system  was  a  marked  improvement  in  the  quality  of 
Kansas  eggs,  and  this  was  so  apparent  to  the  men  engaged  in  han- 
dling them  that  they  became  intensely  interested  in  the  bureau's  work 
and  voluntarily  offered  their  assistance  in  every  possible  way. 

EXTENSION     OF    THE     MOVEMENT    TO    OTHEK    STATES. 

As  a  result  of  its  success  during  the  past  summer,  the  loss-oil'  system 
of  buying  has  become  more  firmly  established  in  Kansas.  It  al-o  led 
to  a  meeting  at  Kansas  City,  on  December  20,  11)10,  of  the  State  pure- 
food  officials  from  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  Missouri,  and  Okla- 
homa, with  a  committee  of  car-lot  shippers  of  eggs,  to  discuss  the 
matter  of  administration  and  the  enactment  of  suitable  legislation. 
It  is  believed  that  the  Kansas  hrw  may  be  improved  upon  so  that  the 
work  may  be  made  more  effective,  and  for  the  purpose  of  enacting 
uniform  legislation  in  the  States  represented  the  following  bill  was 
drafted  at  the  meeting  for  recommendation  to  the  respective  legisla- 
tures of  the  States  represented : 

AN  ACT  For  the  protection  of  public  health  and  the  prevention  of  fraud  l>y  regulating 
the  sale  of  eggs  for  food  purposes,  providing  penalties  for  the  violation  thereof,  and 
providing  for  the  enforcement  thereof. 

lie  It  enacted  by  the  Legislature  <>f  Hie  Mate  <,f  Knnxa*: 

SECTION  1.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged 
in  the  buying  and  shipping  of  eggs,  to  buy.  sell,  barter,  trade,  or  deliver,  or  to 
offer  to  buy,  sell,  barter,  trade,  or  deliver  any  eggs  for  food  purposes  between 
the  1st  day  of  June  and  the  31st  day  of  December  of  each  year,  without  first 
candling  said  eggs,  or  causing  the  same  to  be  candled:  and  any  such  person, 
linn,  or  corporation  who  shall  buy,  sell,  barter,  trade,  or  deliver,  or  offer  to  buy, 
sell,  barter,  trade,  or  deliver  any  such  eggs  without  first  candling  the  same,  or 
causing  the  same  to  be  candled,  and  without  first  removing  all  decayed,  de- 
comiK)sed,  and  spot  eggs  from  those  candled,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor 
and  punished  as  hereinafter  provided. 

SEC.  2.  The  word  "candle."  as  used  herein,  shall  be  construed  to  mean  the 
examination  of  eggs  by  means  of  natural  or  artificial  light,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  disclose  to  the  person  examining  the  same  whether  the  eggs  so  examined  are 
decayed,  decomposed,  or  spot  eggs. 

SKC.  3.  That  the  State  board  of  health  is  authorized  and  directed  to  make  and 
publish  uniform  rules  and  regulations,  not  in  conllict  with  the  laws  of  this 
State,  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act.  Any  person  who  shall  violate 
any  of  the  rules  and  regulations  so  made,  and  published  in  the  ollicial  State 
paper,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  n  misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  —  —  dollars,  or  more  than  —  —  dollars. 

Si:c.  4.  That  a  case  of  eggs  shall  contain  :?o  do/en,  and  it  shall  not  be  con- 
sidered as  a  violation  of  this  act  for  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  to  buy  or 
sell,  or  offer  to  buy  or  sell,  any  case  of  eggs  for  food  purposes  that  does  not  con- 
lain  more  than  -I  per  cent  of  decayed,  decomposed,  or  spot  eggs. 


42  IMPROVEMENT   OF    THE   FARM   EGG. 

SEC.  5.  Auy  person,  firm,  or  corporation  convicted  of  violating  any  provision 
of  this  act  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  in  the  sum  of  not  less  than  —  —  dollars, 
itor  more  than  —  —  dollars. 

SEC.  6.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its  publica- 
tion in  the  statute  book. 

In  addition  to  the  States  named,  there  is  considerable  interest  on 
the  subject  manifested  in  other  Western  States.  The  senior  author  of 
this  bulletin  was  invited  to  meet  the  State  dairy  and  food  commis- 
sioner and  egg  buyers  of  South  Dakota  in  January  for  the  purpose 
of  discussing  methods  of  improving  the  egg  trade  in  that  State,  and 
also  addressed  the  Michigan  Car  Lot  Shippers'  Association  at  their 
annual  meeting  in  Detroit  in  February,  1911,  where  much  interest 
was  evidenced  in  the  subject. 

In  inaugurating  such  a  movement,  the  first  essential  is  an  organiza- 
tion of  buyers  agreed  to  buy  only  on  a  loss-off  basis ;  the  second  is  the 
firm  cooperation  of  the  State  authorities  to  prevent  the  shipment  of 
bad  eggs  within  the  State.  The  one  is  practically  useless  without  the 

other. 

SUMMARY. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  carried  on  work  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1910  in  the  State  of  Kansas  with  the  object  of  improving 
the  quality  of  the  eggs  marketed  in  that  State.  As  a  result  of  this 
work,  the  loss-off  method  of  buying  eggs  has  been  quite  generally 
adopted  by  the  car-lot  shippers  and  has  resulted  in  a  most  gratifying 
improvement  in  the  eggs.  Considerable  interest  in  the  movement 
has  been  aroused  in  other  States,  so  that  it  bids  fair  to  spread  rapidly. 

In  connection  with  the  work  a  careful  investigation  of  all  the 
conditions  surrounding  the  handling  of  eggs,  from  the  time  they  are 
produced  on  the  farm  until  they  reach  the  packing  house,  has  been 
made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  preventable  factors  causing 
loss  of  quality.  As  a  result  of  this  investigation  the  following  sug- 
gestions are  made  for  the  farmer,  the  country  merchant  and  cash 
buyer,  the  railroad,  and  the  car-lot  shipper. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR   FAltMKK. 

1.  Improve  your  poultry  slock. 

2.  Keep  one  of  the  general-purpose  breeds,  such  as  the  Plymouth 
Rock,  Wyandotte,  Orpington,  or  Rhode  Island  Red. 

3.  Provide  one  clean,  dry,  vermin-free  nest  for  every  four  or  five 
hens. 

4.  Conclude  all  hatching  by  May  15  and  sell  or  confine  male  birds 
during  the  remainder  of  the  summer. 

5.  Gather  eggs  once  daily  during  ordinary  times,  and  twice  daily 
during  hot  or  rainy  weather. 


SUMMARY.  4,3 

6.  In  summer  place  eggs  as  soon  as  gathered  in  a  cool,  dry  room. 

7.  Use  all  small  and  dirty  eggs  at  home. 

8.  Market  eggs  frequently — twice  a  week,  if  possible — during  the 
summer. 

9.  In  taking  eggs  to  market  protect  them  from  the  sun's  rays. 

10.  In  selling,  insist  that  the  transaction  be  on  a  loss-off  basis, 
for  if  care  has  been  given  the  eggs  this  system  will  yield  more  money 
to  the  producer. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR    THE   COUNTRY    MERCHANT   AND    CASH    BUYER. 

1.  Candle  all  eggs  anil  buy  on  a  loss-off  basis. 

2.  Allow  the  farmer  to  see  you  candle  his  eggs  occasionally  and 
return  those  rejected  if  he  wishes  them. 

3.  Pack  carefully  in  strong  clean  cases  and  fillers. 

4.  Do  not  keep   in  a   musty  cellar  or  near  oil  barrels  or  other 
odoriferous  merchandise. 

5.  Ship  daily  during  warm  weather. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   RAILROAD   OFFICIALS. 

1.  Provide  a  covered  portion  of  station  platforms  where  egg  cases 
can  be  stacked  and  see  that  the  agent  stacks  them  there. 

2.  Provide  refrigeration  for  the  eggs  on  the  local  freight. 

3.  Where  refrigerator  cars  are  used  on  local  freights,  see  that  the 
doors  are  kept  closed  when  not  loading. 

4.  If  refrigeration  can  not  be  supplied,  provide  stock  cars  rather 
than  box  cars  for  this  purpose  during  the  summer. 

5.  Where  box  cars  are  used  for  eggs  do  not  allow  freight  which 
may  hurt  their  quality,  such  as  oil  barrels,  to  be  loaded  in  the  same 
car. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR    THE    CAR-LOT    SHIPPER. 

1.  Buy  strictly  on  a  loss-ort'  basis. 

2.  Encourage  the  smaller  buyers  to  trade  on  a  loss-on"  basis. 

3.  Join  the  State  Car  Lot  Shippers'  Association. 

4.  Cooperate  with  other  shippers  and  the  State  officials  in  bringing 
about  this  system  of  buying. 

T>.  Keep   the   subject   agitated   and   before  the  people.     In   other 
words,  educate  them. 

o 


A     001  084325 


